As confidentially submitted to the Securities and Exchange Commission on December 1, 2017 on Amendment No. 1 to the draft registration statement.

Registration No. 333-            

UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

FORM S-1

REGISTRATION STATEMENT

UNDER

THE SECURITIES ACT OF 1933

resTORbio, Inc.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

501 Boylston Street, Suite 6102

Boston, MA 02116

(617) 482-2333

(Address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of registrant’s principal executive offices)

Chen Schor

President and Chief Executive Officer

resTORbio, Inc.

501 Boylston Street, Suite 6102

Boston, MA 02116

(617) 482-2333

(Name, address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of agent for service)

Copies to:

Approximate date of commencement of proposed sale to the public:

As soon as practicable after this Registration Statement is declared effective.

If any of the securities being registered on this form are to be offered on a delayed or continuous basis pursuant to Rule 415 under the Securities Act of 1933 check the following box.  ☐

If this form is filed to register additional securities for an offering pursuant to Rule 462(b) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.  ☐

If this form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(c) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.  ☐

If this form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(d) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering.  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act.  ☐

CALCULATION OF REGISTRATION FEE

The Registrant hereby amends this Registration Statement on such date or dates as may be necessary to delay its effective date until the Registrant shall file a further amendment which specifically states that this Registration Statement shall thereafter become effective in accordance with Section 8(a) of the Securities Act of 1933 or until the Registration Statement shall become effective on such date as the Commission, acting pursuant to said Section 8(a), may determine.

The information in this prospectus is not complete and may be changed. We may not sell these securities until the registration statement filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission is effective. This prospectus is not an offer to sell these securities and it is not soliciting an offer to buy these securities in any state where the offer or sale is not permitted.

Subject to Completion

Preliminary Prospectus dated                 , 2018

PROSPECTUS

             Shares

Common Stock

This is resTORbio, Inc.’s initial public offering. We are selling                  shares of our common stock.

We expect the public offering price to be between $        and $        per share. Currently, no public market exists for the shares. We intend to apply to list our common stock on The Nasdaq Global Market under the symbol “TORC.”

We are an “emerging growth company” under federal securities laws and are subject to reduced public company disclosure standards. See “Summary—Implications of Being an Emerging Growth Company.”

Investing in the common stock involves risks that are described in the “Risk Factors” section beginning on page 11 of this prospectus.

The underwriters may also exercise their option to purchase up to an additional                  shares from us, at the public offering price, less underwriting discounts and commissions, for 30 days after the date of this prospectus.

Neither the Securities and Exchange Commission nor any state securities commission has approved or disapproved of these securities or determined if this prospectus is truthful or complete. Any representation to the contrary is a criminal offense.

The shares will be ready for delivery on or about                     , 2018.

Wedbush PacGrow

The date of this prospectus is                 , 2018.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Neither we nor the underwriters have authorized anyone to provide you with any information or to make any representations other than those contained in this prospectus, any amendment or supplement to this prospectus or in any free writing prospectus we may authorize to be delivered or made available to you. Neither we nor the underwriters take responsibility for, and can provide no assurance as to the reliability of, any other information that others may give you. We are offering to sell, and seeking offers to buy, shares of our common stock only in jurisdictions where offers and sales are permitted. The information contained in this prospectus is accurate only as of the date on the front cover of this prospectus, regardless of the time of delivery of this prospectus or any sale of shares of our common stock. Our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects may have changed since that date.

For investors outside the United States: We have not, and the underwriters have not, done anything that would permit this offering or possession or distribution of this prospectus in any jurisdiction where action for that purpose is required, other than in the United States. Persons outside the United States who come into possession of this prospectus must inform themselves about, and observe any restrictions relating to, the offering of the shares of common stock and the distribution of this prospectus outside the United States.

i

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

RISK FACTORS

Investing in our common stock involves a high degree of risk. You should carefully consider the following risks and uncertainties, together with all other information in this prospectus, including our financial statements and related notes and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Results of Operations and Financial Condition,” before investing in our common stock. Any of the risk factors we describe below could adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations. The market price of our common stock could decline if one or more of these risks or uncertainties actually occur, causing you to lose all or part of your investment in our common stock. The risks and uncertainties we describe below are not the only ones we face. Additional risks and uncertainties that we currently do not know about or that we currently believe to be immaterial may also impair our business. Certain statements below are forward-looking statements. See “Special Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements and Industry Data” in this prospectus.

Risks Related to Our Financial Position and Need for Capital

We have incurred significant losses since our inception. We anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future, and we may never achieve or maintain profitability.

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company with a limited operating history. Investment in biopharmaceutical product development is highly speculative because it entails substantial upfront capital expenditures and significant risk that any potential product candidate will fail to demonstrate adequate effect or an acceptable safety profile, gain regulatory approval and become commercially viable. We have no products approved for commercial sale and have not generated any revenue from product sales to date, and we will continue to incur significant research and development and other expenses related to our ongoing operations. As a result, we are not profitable and have incurred losses in each period since our inception in July 2016. We have devoted substantially all of our financial resources and efforts to research and development, including preclinical studies and our clinical trials. Our financial condition and operating results, including net losses, may fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter and year to year. Accordingly, you should not rely upon the results of any quarterly or annual periods as indications of future operating performance. Additionally, net losses and negative cash flows have had, and will continue to have, an adverse effect on our stockholders’ equity and working capital. For the period from July 5, 2016 (inception) to December 31, 2016, we reported a net loss of $1,000. For the nine months ended September 30, 2017, we reported a net loss of $10.7 million. As of September 30, 2017, we had an accumulated deficit of $10.7 million. We expect to continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future, and we expect these losses to increase as we continue our research and development of, and seek regulatory approvals for, RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, and other product candidates.

We anticipate that our expenses will increase substantially if and as we:

11

Our ability to become and remain profitable depends on our ability to generate revenue. We do not expect to generate significant revenue unless and until we are, or any future collaborator is, able to obtain regulatory approval for, and successfully commercialize, RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidates. Successful commercialization will require achievement of key milestones, including demonstrating safety and efficacy in clinical trials, obtaining regulatory, including marketing, approval for these product candidates, manufacturing, marketing and selling those products for which we, or any of our future collaborators, may obtain regulatory approval, satisfying any post-marketing requirements and obtaining reimbursement for our products from private insurance or government payors. Because of the uncertainties and risks associated with these activities, we are unable to accurately and precisely predict the timing and amount of revenues, the extent of any further losses or if or when we might achieve profitability. We and any future collaborators may never succeed in these activities and, even if we do, or any future collaborators do, we may never generate revenues that are large enough for us to achieve profitability. Even if we do achieve profitability, we may not be able to sustain or increase profitability on a quarterly or annual basis. Additionally, our expenses could increase if we are required by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, or any comparable foreign regulatory authority to perform studies in addition to those currently expected, or if there are any delays in completing our clinical trials or the development of any of our product candidates.

Our failure to become and remain profitable would depress the market price of our common stock and could impair our ability to raise capital, expand our business, diversify our product offerings or continue our operations. If we continue to suffer losses as we have in the past, investors may not receive any return on their investment and may lose their entire investment.

Our company has a limited operating history and no history of commercializing pharmaceutical products, which may make it difficult to evaluate the prospects for our future viability.

We were formed in July 2016 and commenced research and development operations in March 2017. Our operations to date have been limited to organizing, staffing and financing our company, raising capital, in-licensing our technology and conducting research and development activities for our product candidates. We have not yet demonstrated an ability to obtain regulatory approvals, manufacture a commercial-scale product, or arrange for a third party to do so on our behalf, or conduct sales and marketing activities necessary for successful product commercialization. Accordingly, you should consider our prospects in light of the costs, uncertainties, delays and difficulties frequently encountered by companies in clinical development, especially clinical-stage biopharmaceutical companies such as ours. Any predictions you make about our future success or viability may not be as accurate as they could be if we had a longer operating history or a history of successfully developing and commercializing pharmaceutical products.

We may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications, delays and other known or unknown factors in achieving our business objectives. We will eventually need to transition from a company with

12

a development focus to a company capable of supporting commercial activities. We may not be successful in such a transition.

We will need substantial additional funding, and if we are unable to raise capital when needed, we could be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate our product discovery and development programs or commercialization efforts.

Our operations have required substantial amounts of cash since inception. Developing pharmaceutical products, including conducting preclinical studies and clinical trials, is a very time-consuming, expensive and uncertain process that takes years to complete. For the foreseeable future, we expect to continue to rely on additional financing to achieve our business objectives.

From July 5, 2016 (inception) to December 31, 2016, we did not use any cash for our operating activities, and in the nine months ended September 30, 2017, we used $6.0 million in net cash for our operating activities, substantially all of which related to research and development activities. We expect our expenses to increase substantially in connection with our ongoing activities, particularly as we initiate new clinical trials of, initiate new research and preclinical development efforts for and seek regulatory approval for, RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any product candidates that we develop or acquire, if any. In addition, if we obtain regulatory approval for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidates, we expect to incur significant commercialization expenses related to product sales, marketing, manufacturing and distribution. Some of these expenses may be incurred in advance of regulatory approval, and could be substantial. Furthermore, following the completion of this offering, we expect to incur significant additional costs associated with operating as a public company. Accordingly, we will need to obtain substantial additional funding in connection with our continuing operations. If we are unable to raise capital when needed or on attractive terms, we may be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate our research and development programs or any future commercialization efforts.

We intend to use the net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash, to fund the development of RTB101, alone and in combination with everolimus, for RTIs and other indications, and of our TORC1 follow-on candidate and other pipeline candidates, and the remainder, if any, for working capital and general corporate purposes. We will be required to expend significant funds in order to advance the development of RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus, as well as other product candidates we may seek to develop or acquire. In addition, while we may seek one or more collaborators for future development of RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus for one or more additional indications beyond immunosenescence or in geographies outside of the United States, Europe and key territories, we may not be able to enter into a collaboration for RTB101 or any other product candidates for such indications or in such geographies on suitable terms, on a timely basis or at all. In any event, the net proceeds of this offering and our existing cash will not be sufficient to fund all of the efforts that we plan to undertake or to fund the completion of development of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus, including activities related to the development of RTB101, alone and in combination with everolimus, for RTIs and other indications, and the development of our TORC1 follow-on candidate and other pipeline candidates. Accordingly, we will be required to obtain substantial additional funding through public or private equity offerings, debt financings, collaborations and licensing arrangements or other sources.

We cannot be certain that additional funding will be available on acceptable terms, or at all. We have no committed source of additional capital and if we are unable to raise additional capital in sufficient amounts or on terms acceptable to us, we may have to significantly delay, scale back or discontinue the development or commercialization of our product candidates or other research and development initiatives. Any of our current or future license agreements may also be terminated if we are unable to meet the payment or other obligations under the agreements. We could be required to seek collaborators for product candidates at an earlier stage than otherwise would be desirable or on terms that are less favorable than might otherwise be available or relinquish or license on unfavorable terms our rights to product candidates in markets where we otherwise would seek to pursue development or commercialization ourselves.

13

We believe that the net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash and cash equivalents, will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements through              . Our estimate may prove to be wrong, and we could use our available capital resources sooner than we currently expect. Further, changing circumstances, some of which may be beyond our control, could cause us to consume capital significantly faster than we currently anticipate, and we may need to seek additional funds sooner than planned. Our future funding requirements, both short- and long-term, will depend on many factors, including:

Raising additional capital may cause dilution to our stockholders, including purchasers of common stock in this offering, restrict our operations or require us to relinquish rights to our technologies or product candidates.

We expect our expenses to increase in connection with our planned operations. Unless and until we can generate a substantial amount of revenue from our product candidates, we expect to finance our future cash needs through public or private equity offerings, debt financings, collaborations, licensing arrangements or other sources, or any combination of the foregoing. In addition, we may seek additional capital due to favorable market conditions or strategic considerations, even if we believe that we have sufficient funds for our current or future operating plans.

14

To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of common stock, convertible securities or other equity securities, your ownership interest may be diluted, and the terms of these securities could include liquidation or other preferences and anti-dilution protections that could adversely affect your rights as a common stockholder. In addition, debt financing, if available, may result in fixed payment obligations and may involve agreements that include restrictive covenants that limit our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures, creating liens, redeeming stock or declaring dividends, that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business. In addition, securing financing could require a substantial amount of time and attention from our management and may divert a disproportionate amount of their attention away from day-to-day activities, which may adversely affect our management’s ability to oversee the development of our product candidates.

If we raise additional funds through collaborations or marketing, distribution or licensing arrangements with third parties, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies, future revenue streams or product candidates or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. If we are unable to raise additional funds when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

Our ability to use net operating losses and research and development credits to offset future taxable income may be subject to certain limitations.

As of September 30, 2017, we had federal and state net operating loss carryforwards of $7.5 million and $7.4 million, respectively, which begin to expire in various amounts in 2036. As of September 30, 2017, we also had federal research and development tax credit carryforwards of $0.1 million, which begin to expire in 2037. These net operating loss and tax credit carryforwards could expire unused and be unavailable to offset future income tax liabilities. In addition, in general, under Sections 382 and 383 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, or the Code, a corporation that undergoes an “ownership change” is subject to limitations on its ability to utilize its pre-change net operating losses or tax credits, or NOLs or credits, to offset future taxable income or taxes. For these purposes, an ownership change generally occurs where the aggregate stock ownership of one or more stockholders or groups of stockholders who owns at least 5% of a corporation’s stock increases its ownership by more than 50 percentage points over its lowest ownership percentage within a specified testing period. Our existing NOLs or credits may be subject to limitations arising from previous ownership changes, and if we undergo an ownership change in connection with or after this offering, our ability to utilize NOLs or credits could be further limited by Sections 382 and 383 of the Code. In addition, future changes in our stock ownership, many of which are outside of our control, could result in an ownership change under Sections 382 and 383 of the Code. Our NOLs or credits may also be impaired under state law. Accordingly, we may not be able to utilize a material portion of our NOLs or credits. If we determine that an ownership change has occurred and our ability to use our historical NOLs or credits is materially limited, it would harm our future operating results by effectively increasing our future tax obligations.

Furthermore, our ability to utilize our NOLs or credits is conditioned upon our attaining profitability and generating U. S. federal and state taxable income. As described above under “Risk Factors—Risks Related to our Financial Position and Need for Additional Capital,” we have incurred significant net losses since our inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future; and therefore, we do not know whether or when we will generate the U.S. federal or state taxable income necessary to utilize our NOL or credit carryforwards that are subject to limitation by Sections 382 and 383 of the Code.

15

Risks Related to the Discovery, Development and Commercialization of Our Product Candidates

Our business depends virtually entirely upon the success of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus. If we are unable to obtain regulatory approval for or successfully commercialize RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, our business may be materially harmed.

We currently have no products approved for sale and are investing the majority of our efforts and financial resources in the development of our lead product candidate, RTB101, either alone or in combination with everolimus. Successful continued development and ultimate regulatory approval of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, for the treatment of aging-related diseases, including our lead indication, reducing the incidence of respiratory tract infections, or RTIs, is critical to the future success of our business. We will need to raise sufficient funds for, and successfully enroll and complete, our clinical development program for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, to treat RTIs and possibly other aging-related diseases. The future regulatory and commercial success of this product candidate is subject to a number of risks, including the following:

16

Many of these risks are beyond our control, including the risks related to clinical development, the regulatory submission process, potential threats to our intellectual property rights and the manufacturing, marketing and sales efforts of any future collaborator. If we are unable to develop, receive regulatory approval for, or successfully commercialize RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus, or if we experience delays as a result of any of these risks or otherwise, our business could be materially harmed.

In addition, of the large number of drugs in development in the pharmaceutical industry, only a small percentage result in the submission of a new drug application, or NDA, to the FDA and even fewer are approved for commercialization. Furthermore, even if we do receive regulatory approval for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, any such approval may be subject to limitations on the indicated uses or patient populations for which we may market the product. Accordingly, even if we are able to obtain the requisite financing to continue to fund our development programs, we cannot assure you that we will successfully develop or commercialize RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, for RTIs or any other indications. If we or any of our future collaborators are unable to develop, or obtain regulatory approval for, or, if approved, successfully commercialize RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, for RTIs or any other indications, we may not be able to generate sufficient revenue to continue our business.

We have no experience as a company in obtaining regulatory approval for a drug.

As a company, we have never obtained regulatory approval for, or commercialized, a drug. It is possible that the FDA may refuse to accept any or all of our planned NDAs for substantive review or may conclude after

17

review of our data that our application is insufficient to obtain regulatory approval for any current or future product candidates. If the FDA does not approve any of our planned NDAs, it may require that we conduct additional costly clinical, nonclinical or manufacturing validation studies before it will reconsider our applications. Depending on the extent of these or any other FDA-required studies, approval of any NDA or other application that we submit may be significantly delayed, possibly for several years, or may require us to expend more resources than we have available. Any failure or delay in obtaining regulatory approvals would prevent us from commercializing RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus or any other product candidate, generating revenues and achieving and sustaining profitability. It is also possible that additional studies, if performed and completed, may not be considered sufficient by the FDA to approve any NDA or other application that we submit. If any of these outcomes occur, we may be forced to abandon the development of our product candidates, which would materially adversely affect our business and could potentially cause us to cease operations. We face similar risks for our applications in foreign jurisdictions.

We depend on the successful initiation and completion of clinical trials for RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus. The positive clinical results, if any, obtained in prior or ongoing clinical trials may not be predictive of future results or repeated in later-stage clinical trials.

Before obtaining regulatory approval for the sale of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other potential product candidate, we must conduct additional clinical trials to demonstrate safety and efficacy in humans. The regulatory requirements for demonstrating efficacy and safety for obtaining approval for reducing the incidence of RTIs or other indications with RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus may differ. We have not completed the clinical trials necessary to support an application for approval to market RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus. Successful completion of such clinical trials is a prerequisite to submitting an NDA to the FDA and, consequently, the ultimate approval and commercial marketing of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus or any other potential product candidate. A failure of one or more clinical trials can occur at any stage of testing. We need to complete our ongoing Phase 2b clinical trial of RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus, and subsequently the requisite Phase 3 clinical trials prior to a submission for regulatory approval. We have conducted limited safety studies in humans to date and have only recently commenced our Phase 2b clinical program to assess the safety, tolerability and efficacy of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, in elderly patients. Additional toxicity and metabolism studies may be required by the FDA or other regulatory agencies. A number of companies in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries, including those with greater resources and experience than us, have suffered significant setbacks in late stage clinical development, even after seeing promising results in earlier clinical trials.

We may experience a number of unforeseen events during, or as a result of, clinical trials for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other potential product candidate that could adversely affect the costs, timing, or successful completion of our clinical trials, including:

18

Regulators, institutional review boards of the institutions in which clinical trials are being conducted or data monitoring committees may suspend or terminate a clinical trial due to a number of factors, including failure to conduct the clinical trial in accordance with regulatory requirements or our clinical protocols, inspection of the clinical trial operations or trial site by the FDA or other regulatory authorities resulting in the imposition of a clinical hold, unforeseen safety issues or adverse side effects, failure to demonstrate a benefit from using a drug, changes in governmental regulations or administrative actions or lack of adequate funding to continue the clinical trial.

Negative or inconclusive results from our ongoing clinical trial of RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus, or any other clinical trial or preclinical studies in animals that we conduct, could mandate

19

repeated or additional clinical trials. We do not know whether any clinical trials that we may conduct will demonstrate adequate efficacy and safety to result in regulatory approval to market RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other potential product candidate. If later stage clinical trials do not produce favorable results, our ability to obtain regulatory approval for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other potential product candidate may be adversely impacted.

Clinical trials must be conducted in accordance with the laws and regulations of the FDA, EMA and regulations and other applicable regulatory authorities’ legal requirements, regulations or guidelines, and are subject to oversight by these governmental agencies and IRBs at the medical institutions where the clinical trials are conducted. In addition, clinical trials must be conducted with supplies of our product candidates produced under current good manufacturing practice, or cGMP, requirements and other regulations. Furthermore, we rely on CROs, and clinical trial sites to ensure the proper and timely conduct of our clinical trials and while we have agreements governing their committed activities, we have limited influence over their actual performance. We depend on our collaborators and on medical institutions and CROs to conduct our clinical trials in compliance with good clinical practice, or GCP, requirements. To the extent our collaborators or the CROs fail to enroll participants for our clinical trials, fail to conduct the study to GCP standards or are delayed for a significant time in the execution of trials, including achieving full enrollment, we may be affected by increased costs, program delays or both. In addition, clinical trials that are conducted in countries outside the United States and EU may subject us to further delays and expenses as a result of increased shipment costs, additional regulatory requirements and the engagement of non-U.S. and non-EU CROs, as well as expose us to risks associated with clinical investigators who are unknown to the FDA or the EMA, and different standards of diagnosis, screening and medical care.

We may be subject to additional risks because we are administering RTB101 in combination with other mTOR inhibitors, such as everolimus.

We are evaluating RTB101 in combination with other mTOR inhibitors. For example, in our ongoing Phase 2b clinical trial, we are assessing the safety, tolerability and efficacy of RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus. The use of RTB101 in combination with other compounds may subject us to risks that we would not face if RTB101 were being administered as a monotherapy. For example, the other mTOR inhibitors, including everolimus, may have safety issues that are improperly attributed to RTB101 or the administration of RTB101 with such other therapies may result in safety issues that such other therapies or RTB101 would not have when used alone. In addition, other mTOR inhibitors with which we may administer RTB101, such as everolimus, could be removed from the market and thus be unavailable for testing or commercial use concomitantly with RTB101. The outcome and cost of developing a product candidate to be used with other compounds is difficult to predict and dependent on a number of factors that are outside our reasonable control. If we experience efficacy or safety issues in our clinical trials in which RTB101 is being administered with everolimus, we may not receive regulatory approval for RTB101, which could prevent us from ever generating revenue or achieving profitability.

Competitive products may reduce or eliminate the commercial opportunity for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus. If our competitors develop technologies or product candidates more rapidly than we do, or their technologies are more effective or safer than ours, our ability to develop and successfully commercialize RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus may be adversely affected.

The clinical and commercial landscape for aging-related diseases is highly competitive and subject to rapid and significant technological change. New data from competitors’ product candidates continue to emerge. It is possible that these data may alter the current standard of care, completely precluding us from further developing RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, for RTIs or other aging-related diseases. Further, it is possible that we may initiate a clinical trial or trials for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other potential product candidate only to find that data from competing products make it impossible for us to complete enrollment in clinical trials, resulting in our inability to submit applications for regulatory approval

20

with regulatory agencies. Even if RTB101 were approved, alone or in combination with everolimus, it may have limited sales due to competition in the specific indications approved.

Competitive therapeutic treatments for aging-related diseases, including RTIs, include those that are currently in development and any new treatments that enter the market. We believe that a significant number of product candidates are currently under development, and may become commercially available in the future, for the treatment of conditions for which we may try to develop product candidates. Our potential competitors include large pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, specialty pharmaceutical and generic drug companies, academic institutions, government agencies and research institutions. We consider Navitor Pharma to be our most direct competitor in developing novel therapeutics targeting the TORC1 mechanism of action. Additionally, we are also aware of other companies, including Calico and Unity, which are seeking to develop treatments to prevent or treat aging-related diseases through biological pathways that may be unrelated to mTOR inhibition. Similarly, there are several other companies, such as PrEP BioPharm, Virion Health and Innavac, which are pursuing broad-spectrum prophylactic and therapeutic treatments in RTIs.

Many of our competitors have greater financial, technical, manufacturing, marketing, sales and supply resources, and human resources or experience than us and significantly greater experience in the discovery and development of product candidates, obtaining FDA and other regulatory approvals of products and the commercialization of those products. Accordingly, our competitors may be more successful than we may be in obtaining regulatory approval for therapies and achieving widespread market acceptance. Our competitors’ products may be more effective, or more effectively marketed and sold, than any product candidate we may commercialize and may render our therapies obsolete or non-competitive before we can recover development and commercialization expenses. If RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, is approved for the indications we are currently pursuing, it could compete with a range of therapeutic treatments that are in development. In addition, our competitors may succeed in developing, acquiring or licensing technologies and drug products that are more effective or less costly than RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus or any other product candidates that we are currently developing or that we may develop, which could render our product candidates obsolete and noncompetitive.

If we obtain approval for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other future product candidate, we may face competition based on many different factors, including the efficacy, safety and tolerability of our products, the ease with which our products can be administered, the timing and scope of regulatory approvals for these products, the availability and cost of manufacturing, marketing and sales capabilities, price, reimbursement coverage and patent position. Existing and future competing products could present superior treatment alternatives, including being more effective, safer, less expensive or marketed and sold more effectively than any products we may develop. Competitive products may make any products we develop obsolete or noncompetitive before we recover the expense of developing and commercializing our product candidates. Such competitors could also recruit our employees, which could negatively impact our level of expertise and our ability to execute our business plan. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a small number of competitors.

We also compete with other clinical stage companies and institutions for clinical trial participants, which could reduce our ability to recruit participants for our clinical trials. Delay in recruiting clinical trial participants could adversely affect our ability to bring a product to market prior to our competitors. Further, research and discoveries by others may result in breakthroughs that render our product candidates obsolete even before they begin to generate any revenue.

In addition, our competitors may obtain patent protection, regulatory exclusivities, or FDA approval and commercialize products more rapidly than we do, which may impact future approvals or sales of any of our product candidates that receive regulatory approval. If the FDA approves the commercial sale of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate, we will also be competing with respect to

21

marketing capabilities and manufacturing efficiency. We expect competition among products will be based on product efficacy and safety, the timing and scope of regulatory approvals, availability of supply, marketing and sales capabilities, product price, reimbursement coverage by government and private third-party payers, regulatory exclusivities and patent position. Our profitability and financial position will suffer if our product candidates receive regulatory approval, but cannot compete effectively in the marketplace.

Many of our competitors have significantly greater financial resources and expertise in research and development, manufacturing, preclinical testing, conducting clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved products than we do. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a smaller number of our competitors. Smaller and other early stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. These third parties compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel and establishing clinical trial sites, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or necessary for, our programs.

Furthermore, regulatory authorities’ assessment of the data and results required to demonstrate safety and efficacy can change over time and can be affected by many factors, such as the emergence of new information, including on other products, changing policies and agency funding, staffing and leadership. We cannot be sure whether future changes to the regulatory environment will be favorable or unfavorable to our business prospects. For example, average review times at the FDA for regulatory approval applications can be affected by a variety of factors, including budget and funding levels and statutory, regulatory and policy changes.

The regulatory approval processes of the FDA, EMA and comparable foreign authorities are lengthy, time consuming and inherently unpredictable. If clinical trials of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, fail to satisfactorily demonstrate safety and efficacy to the FDA or other regulators, or do not otherwise produce favorable results, we, or any future collaborators, may incur additional costs or experience delays in completing, or ultimately be unable to complete, the development and commercialization of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus.

We, and any future collaborators, are not permitted to commercialize, market, promote or sell any product candidate in the United States without obtaining regulatory approval from the FDA. Foreign regulatory authorities, such as the EMA, impose similar requirements. The time required to obtain approval by the FDA, EMA and comparable foreign authorities is unpredictable, but typically takes many years following the commencement of clinical trials and depends upon numerous factors, including substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. In addition, approval policies, regulations, or the type and amount of clinical data necessary to gain approval may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. To date, we have not submitted an NDA to the FDA or similar drug approval submissions to comparable foreign regulatory authorities for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate. We, and any future collaborators, must complete additional preclinical or nonclinical studies and clinical trials to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of our product candidates in humans before we will be able to obtain these approvals.

Clinical testing is expensive, difficult to design and implement, can take many years to complete and is inherently uncertain as to outcome. We cannot guarantee that any clinical trials will be conducted as planned or completed on schedule, if at all. The clinical development of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus or other drugs is susceptible to the risk of failure inherent at any stage of development, including failure to demonstrate efficacy in a clinical trial or across a broad population of patients, the occurrence of adverse events that are severe or medically or commercially unacceptable, failure to comply with protocols or applicable regulatory requirements, and determination by the FDA or any comparable foreign regulatory authority that a product candidate may not continue development or is not approvable. It is possible that even if RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate has a beneficial effect, that effect will not be detected during clinical evaluation as a result of one or more of a variety of factors, including the seasonal and

22

geographical RTI rates and size, duration, design, measurements, conduct or analysis of our clinical trials. Conversely, as a result of the same factors, our clinical trials may indicate an apparent positive effect of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate that is greater than the actual positive effect, if any. Similarly, in our clinical trials we may fail to detect toxicity of or intolerability caused by RTB101, everolimus or any other product candidate, or mistakenly believe that our product candidates are toxic or not well tolerated when that is not in fact the case.

Any inability to successfully complete preclinical and clinical development could result in additional costs to us, or any future collaborators. Moreover, if we, or any future collaborators, are required to conduct additional clinical trials or other testing of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate beyond the trials and testing that we or they contemplate, if we or they are unable to successfully complete clinical trials of our product candidates or other testing or the results of these trials or tests are unfavorable, uncertain or are only modestly favorable, or there are unacceptable safety concerns associated with our product candidates, we, or any future collaborators may:

Our failure to successfully initiate and complete clinical trials of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate and to demonstrate the efficacy and safety necessary to obtain regulatory approval to market RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate would significantly harm our business. Our product candidate development costs will also increase if we experience delays in testing or regulatory approvals and we may be required to obtain additional funds to complete clinical trials. We cannot assure you that our clinical trials will begin as planned or be completed on schedule, if at all, or that we will not need to restructure our trials after they have begun. Significant clinical trial delays also could shorten any periods during which we may have the exclusive right to commercialize our product candidates or allow our competitors to bring products to market before we do and impair our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates, which may harm our business and results of operations. In addition, many of the factors that cause, or lead to, delays of clinical trials may ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus or any other product candidate.

Our product candidates may cause undesirable side effects or have other properties that could delay or prevent their regulatory approval, limit the commercial profile of an approved label, or result in significant negative consequences following regulatory approval, if obtained.

Undesirable side effects caused by RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate could cause us or regulatory authorities to interrupt, delay or halt clinical trials and could result in a more restrictive label or the delay or denial of regulatory approval by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. Results of our clinical trials could reveal a high and unacceptable severity and prevalence of side effects or unexpected characteristics. In clinical trials of RTB101, alone or in combination with

23

everolimus, to date, there were no observed study drug-related serious adverse events in the Phase 2a clinical trial except in the placebo arm. The majority of observed study-drug related adverse events were mild or moderate in severity, transient and resolved without stopping the study drug. However, there can be no guarantee that we would observe a similar tolerability profile of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, in our ongoing Phase 2b clinical trial or in future clinical trials. Many compounds that initially showed promise in clinical or earlier stage testing are later found to cause undesirable or unexpected side effects that prevented further development of the compound.

If unacceptable side effects arise in the development of our product candidates, we, the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, the IRBs, or independent ethics committees at the institutions in which our trials are conducted, or the Data Safety Monitoring Board, or DSMB, could suspend or terminate our clinical trials or the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities could order us to cease clinical trials or deny approval of our product candidates for any or all targeted indications. Treatment-emergent side effects that are deemed to be treatment-related could also affect subject recruitment or the ability of enrolled subjects to complete the trial or result in potential product liability claims. In addition, these side effects may not be appropriately recognized or managed by the treating medical staff. We expect to have to train medical personnel using our product candidates to understand the side effect profiles for our clinical trials and upon any commercialization of any of our product candidates. Inadequate training in recognizing or managing the potential side effects of our product candidates could result in patient injury or death. Any of these occurrences may harm our business, financial condition and prospects significantly.

Moreover, clinical trials of our product candidates are conducted in carefully defined sets of patients who have agreed to enter into clinical trials. Consequently, it is possible that our clinical trials, or those of any future collaborator, may indicate an apparent positive effect of a product candidate that is greater than the actual positive effect, if any, or alternatively fail to identify undesirable side effects. If, following approval of a product candidate, we, or others, discover that the product is less effective than previously believed or causes undesirable side effects that were not previously identified, any of the following adverse consequences could occur:

24

Any of these events could harm our business and operations, and could negatively impact our stock price.

If we fail to develop and commercialize RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, for additional indications or fail to discover, develop and commercialize other product candidates, we may be unable to grow our business and our ability to achieve our strategic objectives would be impaired.

Although the development and commercialization of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus for RTIs is our primary focus, as part of our longer-term growth strategy, we may evaluate RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, in other indications and develop other product candidates. We intend to evaluate internal opportunities from RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or other product candidates from our TORC1 program, and also may choose to in-license or acquire other product candidates as well as commercial products to treat patients suffering from other disorders with significant unmet medical needs and limited treatment options. These other product candidates will require additional, time-consuming development efforts prior to commercial sale, including preclinical studies, clinical trials and approval by the FDA and/or applicable foreign regulatory authorities. All product candidates are prone to the risks of failure that are inherent in pharmaceutical product development, including the possibility that the product candidate will not be shown to be sufficiently safe and effective for approval by regulatory authorities. In addition, we cannot assure you that any such products that are approved will be manufactured or produced economically, successfully commercialized or widely accepted in the marketplace or be more effective than other commercially available alternatives.

Research programs to identify product candidates require substantial technical, financial and human resources, whether or not any product candidates are ultimately identified. Our research programs may initially show promise in identifying potential product candidates, yet fail to yield product candidates for clinical development for many reasons, including the following:

If we are unsuccessful in identifying and developing additional product candidates, our potential for growth and achieving our strategic objectives may be impaired.

Our preclinical programs may not produce new product candidates that are suitable for clinical trials or that can be successfully commercialized or generate revenue through collaborations.

We must successfully complete preclinical testing for our preclinical programs, including our TORC1 follow-on program, which may include demonstrating activity and comprehensive studies to show the lack of

25

toxicity and other adverse effects in established animal models, before commencing clinical trials for any product candidate. Many pharmaceutical products do not successfully complete preclinical testing and, even if preclinical testing is successfully completed, may fail in clinical trials. In addition, there can be no assurance that positive results from preclinical studies will be predictive of results obtained from subsequent preclinical studies or clinical trials. Many pharmaceutical candidates are not suitable for manufacture on the scale or of the quality required for clinical trials or commercialization. Some pharmaceutical candidates that initially seem suitable may later be found to be insufficiently stable or may generate toxic impurities over time. We also cannot be certain that any product candidates that do advance into clinical trials will successfully demonstrate safety and efficacy in clinical trials. Even if we achieve positive results in early preclinical studies or clinical trials, they may not be predictive of the results in later trials.

We may expend our resources to pursue a particular product candidate or indication and forgo the opportunity to capitalize on product candidates or indications that may ultimately be more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

Because we have limited financial and managerial resources, we intend to focus on developing product candidates for specific indications that we identify as most likely to succeed, in terms of both their potential for regulatory approval and commercialization. As a result, we may forego or delay pursuit of opportunities with other product candidates or for other indications that may prove to have greater commercial potential.

Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities. Our spending on current and future research and development programs and product candidates for specific indications may not yield any commercially viable product candidates. If we do not accurately evaluate the commercial potential or target market for a particular product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to that product candidate through collaboration, licensing or other royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have been more advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights to the product candidate.

If the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities approve generic versions of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate of ours that receives regulatory approval, or such authorities do not grant our products appropriate periods of non-patent exclusivity before approving generic versions of such products, the sales of such products could be adversely affected.

Once an NDA is approved, the product covered thereby becomes a “listed drug” in the FDA’s publication, “Approved Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluations,” or the Orange Book. Manufacturers may seek approval of generic versions of reference listed drugs through submission of abbreviated new drug applications, or ANDAs, in the United States. In support of an ANDA, a generic manufacturer generally must show that its product has the same active ingredient(s), dosage form, strength, route of administration, conditions of use and labeling as the reference listed drug and that the generic version is bioequivalent to the reference listed drug, meaning, in part, that it is absorbed in the body at the same rate and to the same extent. Generic products may be significantly less costly to bring to market than the reference listed drug and companies that produce generic products are generally able to offer them at lower prices. Moreover, many states allow or require substitution of therapeutically equivalent generic drugs at the pharmacy level even if the branded drug is prescribed. Thus, following the introduction of a generic drug, a significant percentage of the sales of any branded product or reference listed drug may be lost to the generic product.

The FDA may not approve an ANDA for a generic product until any applicable period of non-patent exclusivity for the reference listed drug has expired. The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, or FDCA, provides a period of five years of non-patent exclusivity for a new drug containing a new chemical entity, or NCE. Specifically, in cases where such exclusivity has been granted, an ANDA may not be filed with the FDA until the expiration of five years unless the submission is accompanied by a Paragraph IV certification that a patent covering the listed drug is invalid, unenforceable or will not be infringed by the generic product, in which

26

case the applicant may submit its application four years following approval of the listed drug. It is unclear whether the FDA will treat the active ingredients in our product candidates as NCEs and, therefore, afford them five years of NCE data exclusivity if they are approved. If any product we develop does not receive five years of NCE exclusivity, the FDA may approve generic versions of such product three years after its date of approval, subject to the requirement that the ANDA applicant certifies to any patents listed for our products in the Orange Book. Three year exclusivity is given to a drug if it contains an active moiety that has previously been approved, and the NDA includes reports of one or more new clinical investigations, other than bioavailability or bioequivalence studies, that were conducted by or for the applicant and are essential to the approval of the NDA. If approved, manufacturers may seek to launch these generic products following the expiration of the applicable marketing exclusivity period, even if we still have patent protection for our product.

Competition that our products, if approved, may face from generic versions of our products could negatively impact our future revenue, profitability and cash flows and substantially limit our ability to obtain a return on our investments in those product candidates.

If we encounter difficulties enrolling patients in our future clinical trials, our clinical development activities could be delayed or otherwise adversely affected.

We may experience difficulties in patient enrollment in our clinical trials for a variety of reasons. The timely completion of clinical trials in accordance with their protocols depends, among other things, on our ability to enroll a sufficient number of patients who remain in the study until its conclusion.

Patient enrollment is affected by many factors, including:

In addition, our clinical trials will compete with other clinical trials for product candidates that are in the same therapeutic areas as our product candidates, and this competition will reduce the number and types of patients available to us, because some patients who might have opted to enroll in our trials may instead opt to enroll in a trial being conducted by one of our competitors. Since the number of qualified clinical investigators is limited, we expect to conduct some of our clinical trials at the same clinical trial sites that some of our competitors use, which will reduce the number of patients who are available for our clinical trials in such clinical trial site. In addition, because we intend to investigate our product candidates during the winter cold and flu season, this timing requirement may further limit the available pool of clinical trial subjects.

Our inability to enroll a sufficient number of patients for our clinical trials would result in significant delays or might require us to abandon one or more clinical trials altogether. Delays in patient enrollment may

27

result in increased costs, affect the timing or outcome of the planned clinical trials, product candidate development and approval process and jeopardize our ability to seek and obtain the regulatory approval required to commence product sales and generate revenue, which could prevent completion of these trials, adversely affect our ability to advance the development of our product candidates, cause the value of our company to decline and limit our ability to obtain additional financing if needed.

Ingredients, excipients and other materials necessary to manufacture RTB101 or everolimus may not be available on commercially reasonable terms, or at all, which may adversely affect the development and commercialization of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus.

We and our third-party manufacturers must obtain from other third-party suppliers the active pharmaceutical ingredients, excipients and primary and secondary packaging materials necessary for our contract manufacturers to produce RTB101 or everolimus for our clinical trials and, to the extent approved or commercialized, for commercial distribution. There is no guarantee that we would be able to enter into all the necessary agreements with third-party suppliers that we require for the supply of such materials on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Even if we were able to secure such agreements or guarantees, our suppliers may be unable or choose not to provide us the ingredients, excipients or materials in a timely manner or in the quantities required. If we or our third-party manufacturers are unable to obtain the quantities of these ingredients, excipients or materials that are necessary for the manufacture of commercial supplies of RTB101 or everolimus, our ability to generate revenue from the sale of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus would be materially and adversely affected. Further, if we or our third-party manufacturers are unable to obtain active pharmaceutical ingredients, excipients and materials as necessary for our clinical trials or for the manufacture of commercial supplies of our product candidates, if approved, potential regulatory approval or commercialization would be delayed, which would materially and adversely affect our ability to generate revenue from the sale of our product candidates. As a result of these and other factors, the cost of manufacturing drug material may not support continued development or commercialization or may materially reduce revenue.

Even if RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate of ours receives regulatory approval, it may fail to achieve the degree of market acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors and others in the medical community necessary for commercial success, in which case we may not generate significant revenues or become profitable.

We have never commercialized a product, and even if RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate of ours is approved by the appropriate regulatory authorities for marketing and sale, it may nonetheless fail to gain sufficient market acceptance by physicians, patients, third-party payors and others in the medical community. The market for therapies targeting aging-related diseases with an immunotherapy is novel, and physicians may be reluctant to adopt novel therapies. In addition, patients and their physicians may not desire to add RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, even if approved, to their existing prophylactic treatment regime. For example, physicians are often reluctant to switch their patients from existing prophylactics for RTIs even when new and potentially more effective or convenient alternatives enter the market. Further, patients often acclimate to the treatment regime that they are currently taking and do not want to switch unless their physicians recommend switching products or they are required to switch due to lack of coverage and reimbursement. In addition, even if we are able to demonstrate our product candidates’ safety and efficacy to the FDA and other regulators, safety or efficacy concerns in the medical community may hinder market acceptance.

Efforts to educate the medical community and third-party payors on the benefits of our product candidates may require significant resources, including management time and financial resources, and may not be successful. If RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate is approved but does not achieve an adequate level of market acceptance, we may not generate significant revenues and we

28

may not become profitable. The degree of market acceptance of our product candidates, if approved for commercial sale, will depend on a number of factors, including:

Any failure by RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus or any other product candidate of ours that obtains regulatory approval to achieve market acceptance or commercial success would adversely affect our business prospects.

Even if we, or any future collaborators, are able to commercialize any product candidate that we, or they, develop, the product may become subject to unfavorable pricing regulations or third-party payor coverage and reimbursement policies, any of which could harm our business.

Patients who are provided medical treatment for their conditions generally rely on third party payors to reimburse all or part of the costs associated with their treatment. Therefore, our ability, and the ability of any future collaborators to commercialize any of our product candidates will depend in part on the extent to which coverage and reimbursement for these products and related treatments will be available from third-party payors including government health administration authorities and private health coverage insurers. Third-party payors decide which medications they will cover and establish reimbursement levels. We cannot be certain that coverage will be available and reimbursement will be adequate for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any of our other product candidates. Also, we cannot be certain that reimbursement policies will not reduce the demand for, or the price paid for, our products.

If coverage and reimbursement are not available, or reimbursement is available only to limited levels, we, or any future collaborators, may be limited in our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates. Even if coverage is provided, the approved reimbursement amount may not be high enough to allow

29

us, or any future collaborators, to establish or maintain pricing sufficient to realize a sufficient return on our or their investment. In the United States, no uniform policy of coverage and reimbursement for products exists among third-party payors and coverage and reimbursement for products can differ significantly from payor to payor. As a result, the coverage determination process is often a time-consuming and costly process that will require us to provide scientific and clinical support for the use of our products to each payor separately, with no assurance that coverage and adequate reimbursement will be applied consistently or obtained in the first instance.

There is significant uncertainty related to third-party payor coverage and reimbursement of newly approved drugs. Regulatory approvals, pricing and reimbursement for new drug products vary widely from country to country. Some countries require approval of the sale price of a drug before it can be marketed. In many countries, the pricing review period begins after marketing or product licensing approval is granted. In some foreign markets, prescription pharmaceutical pricing remains subject to continuing governmental control even after initial approval is granted. As a result, we, or any future collaborators, might obtain regulatory approval for a product in a particular country, but then be subject to price regulations that delay commercial launch of the product, which may negatively impact the revenues we are able to generate from the sale of the product in that country. Adverse pricing limitations may hinder our ability or the ability of any future collaborators to recoup our or their investment in one or more product candidates, even if our product candidates obtain regulatory approval.

The healthcare industry is acutely focused on cost containment, both in the United States and elsewhere. Government authorities and other third-party payors have attempted to control costs by limiting coverage and the amount of reimbursement for certain medications, which could affect our ability or that of any future collaborators to sell our product candidates profitably. These payors may not view our products, if any, as cost-effective, and coverage and reimbursement may not be available to our customers, or those of any future collaborators, or may not be sufficient to allow our products, if any, to be marketed on a competitive basis. Cost-control initiatives could cause us, or any future collaborators, to decrease the price we, or they, might establish for products, which could result in lower than anticipated product revenues. If the prices for our products, if any, decrease or if governmental and other third-party payors do not provide coverage or adequate reimbursement, our prospects for revenue and profitability will suffer.

There may also be delays in obtaining coverage and reimbursement for newly approved drugs, and coverage may be more limited than the indications for which the drug is approved by the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities. Moreover, eligibility for reimbursement does not imply that any drug will be paid for in all cases or at a rate that covers our costs, including research, development, manufacture, sale and distribution. Reimbursement rates may vary, by way of example, according to the use of the product and the clinical setting in which it is used. Reimbursement rates may also be based on reimbursement levels already set for lower cost drugs or may be incorporated into existing payments for other services.

In addition, increasingly, third-party payors are requiring higher levels of evidence of the benefits and clinical outcomes of new technologies and are challenging prices. We cannot be sure that coverage will be available for any product candidate that we, or any future collaborator, commercialize and, if available, that the reimbursement rates will be adequate. Further, the net reimbursement for drug products may be subject to additional reductions if there are changes to laws that presently restrict imports of drugs from one country to another. An inability to promptly obtain coverage and adequate payment rates from both government-funded and private payors for any of our product candidates for which we, or any future collaborator, obtain regulatory approval could significantly harm our operating results, our ability to raise capital needed to commercialize products and our overall financial condition.

Product liability lawsuits against us or any of our future collaborators could divert our resources and attention, cause us incur substantial liabilities and limit commercialization of our product candidates.

We are exposed to potential product liability and professional indemnity risks that are inherent in the research, development, manufacturing, marketing and use of pharmaceutical products. Currently, we have no

30

products that have been approved for commercial sale; however, the current and future use of our product candidates by us and any collaborators in clinical trials, and the sale of these product candidates, if approved, in the future, may expose us to liability claims. We face an inherent risk of product liability lawsuits related to the use of our product candidates in elderly patients and will face an even greater risk if product candidates are approved by regulatory authorities and introduced commercially. Product liability claims may be brought against us or our partners by participants enrolled in our clinical trials, patients, health care providers, pharmaceutical companies, our collaborators or others using, administering or selling any of our future approved products. If we cannot successfully defend ourselves against any such claims, we may incur substantial liabilities or be required to limit commercialization of our product candidates. Regardless of the merits or eventual outcome, liability claims may result in:

Although the clinical trial process is designed to identify and assess potential side effects, clinical development does not always fully characterize the safety and efficacy profile of a new medicine, and it is always possible that a drug, even after regulatory approval, may exhibit unforeseen side effects. If our product candidates were to cause adverse side effects during clinical trials or after approval, we may be exposed to substantial liabilities. Physicians and patients may not comply with any warnings that identify known potential adverse effects and patients who should not use our product candidates. If any of our product candidates are approved for commercial sale, we will be highly dependent upon consumer perceptions of us and the safety and quality of our products. We could be adversely affected if we are subject to negative publicity associated with illness or other adverse effects resulting from patients’ use or misuse of our products or any similar products distributed by other companies.

Although we maintain product liability insurance coverage in the amount of up to $10.0 million in the aggregate, including clinical trial liability, this insurance may not fully cover potential liabilities that we may incur. The cost of any product liability litigation or other proceeding, even if resolved in our favor, could be substantial. We will need to increase our insurance coverage if we commercialize any product that receives regulatory approval. In addition, insurance coverage is becoming increasingly expensive. If we are unable to maintain sufficient insurance coverage at an acceptable cost or to otherwise protect against potential product liability claims, it could prevent or inhibit the development and commercial production and sale of our product candidates, which could harm our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

31

We currently have no marketing, sales or distribution infrastructure. If we are unable to develop our sales, marketing and distribution capability on our own or through collaborations with marketing partners, we will not be successful in commercializing our product candidates.

We currently have no marketing, sales or distribution capabilities. If RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, is approved for RTIs, we intend to establish a sales and marketing organization with technical expertise and supporting distribution capabilities to commercialize the approved product in key territories, which will require substantial additional resources. Some or all of these costs may be incurred in advance of any approval of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus. Any failure or delay in the development of our or third parties’ internal sales, marketing and distribution capabilities would adversely impact the commercialization of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, and other future product candidates.

Factors that may inhibit our efforts to commercialize our products on our own include:

With respect to our existing and future product candidates, we may choose to collaborate with third parties that have direct sales forces and established distribution systems to serve as an alternative to our own sales force and distribution systems. Our product revenue may be lower than if we directly marketed or sold our products, if approved. In addition, any revenue we receive will depend in whole or in part upon the efforts of these third parties, which may not be successful and are generally not within our control. If we are not successful in commercializing any approved products, our future product revenue will suffer and we may incur significant additional losses.

If we do not establish sales and marketing capabilities successfully, either on our own or in collaboration with third parties, we will not be successful in commercializing our product candidates.

If we, or any future collaborators, experience any of a number of possible unforeseen events in connection with clinical trials of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate, potential clinical development, regulatory approval or commercialization of our product candidates could be delayed or prevented.

We, or any future collaborators, may experience numerous unforeseen events during, or as a result of, clinical trials that could delay or prevent clinical development, regulatory approval or commercialization of our product candidates, including:

32

Further, conducting clinical trials in foreign countries, as we have done and plan to do for our product candidates, presents additional risks that may delay completion of our clinical trials. These risks include the failure of enrolled patients in foreign countries to adhere to clinical protocol as a result of differences in healthcare services or cultural customs, managing additional administrative burdens associated with foreign regulatory schemes, as well as political and economic risks relevant to such foreign countries.

Product development costs for us, or any future collaborators, will increase if we, or they, experience delays in testing or pursuing regulatory approvals and we, or they, may be required to obtain additional funds to complete clinical trials and prepare for possible commercialization of our product candidates. We do not know whether any preclinical studies or clinical trials will begin as planned, will need to be restructured, or will be completed on schedule or at all. Significant preclinical study or clinical trial delays also could shorten any periods during which we, or any future collaborators, may have the exclusive right to commercialize our product candidates or allow our competitors, or the competitors of any future collaborators, to bring products to market before we, or any future collaborators, do and impair our ability, or the ability of any future collaborators, to successfully commercialize our product candidates and may harm our business and results of operations. In addition, many of the factors that lead to clinical trial delays may ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval of any of our product candidates.

Results of preclinical studies and early clinical trials may not be predictive of results of future clinical trials, and such results do not guarantee approval of a product candidate by regulatory authorities.

The outcome of preclinical studies and early clinical trials may not be predictive of the success of later clinical trials, and interim results of clinical trials do not necessarily predict success in the results of completed

33

clinical trials. Many companies in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries have suffered significant setbacks in late-stage clinical trials after achieving positive results in earlier development, and we could face similar setbacks. The design of a clinical trial can determine whether its results will support approval of a product and flaws in the design of a clinical trial may not become apparent until the clinical trial is well advanced. In addition, preclinical and clinical data are often susceptible to varying interpretations and analyses. Many companies that believed their product candidates performed satisfactorily in preclinical studies and clinical trials have nonetheless failed to obtain regulatory approval for their product candidates. Even if we complete clinical development of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus for RTIs or any other indication, there can be no assurance that the FDA, EMA, or other regulatory authorities will approve RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus for marketing.

In some instances, there can be significant variability in safety or efficacy results between different clinical trials of the same product candidate due to numerous factors, including changes in trial procedures set forth in protocols, differences in the size and type of the patient populations, changes in and adherence to the dosing regimen and other clinical trial procedures and the rate of dropout among clinical trial participants. If we fail to receive positive results in clinical trials of our product candidates, the development timeline and regulatory approval and commercialization prospects for our most advanced product candidate, and, correspondingly, our business and financial prospects would be negatively impacted.

Risks Related to Regulatory Approval and Marketing of Our Product Candidates and Other Legal Compliance Matters

Even if we complete the necessary preclinical studies and clinical trials, the regulatory approval process for product candidates is expensive, time consuming and uncertain and may prevent us or any future collaborators from obtaining approvals for the commercialization of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus or any other product candidate. As a result, we cannot predict when or if, and in which territories, we, or any future collaborators, will obtain regulatory approval to commercialize a product candidate.

The research, testing, manufacturing, labeling, approval, selling, marketing, promotion and distribution of products are subject to extensive regulation by the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities. We, and any future collaborators, are not permitted to market RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate in the United States or in other countries until we, or they, receive approval of a NDA from the FDA or regulatory approval from applicable regulatory authorities outside the United States. RTB101 is in clinical development and is subject to the risks of failure inherent in drug development. We have not submitted an application for or received regulatory approval for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidate in the United States or in any other jurisdiction. We have limited experience in conducting and managing the clinical trials necessary to obtain regulatory approvals, including obtaining FDA approval of an NDA.

The process of obtaining regulatory approvals, both in the United States and abroad, is lengthy, expensive and uncertain. It may take many years, if approval is obtained at all, and can vary substantially based upon a variety of factors, including the type, complexity and novelty of the product candidates involved. Securing regulatory approval requires the submission of extensive preclinical and clinical data and supporting information to regulatory authorities for each therapeutic indication to establish the product candidate’s safety and efficacy. Securing regulatory approval also requires the submission of information about the product manufacturing process to, and inspection of manufacturing facilities by, the regulatory authorities. The FDA or other regulatory authorities may determine that RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidates are not safe and effective, only moderately effective or have undesirable or unintended side effects, toxicities or other characteristics that preclude our obtaining regulatory approval or prevent or limit commercial use. Any regulatory approval we ultimately obtain may be limited or subject to restrictions or post-approval commitments that render the approved product not commercially viable.

34

In addition, changes in regulatory approval policies during the development period, changes in or the enactment or promulgation of additional statutes, regulations or guidance or changes in regulatory review for each submitted product application, may cause delays in the approval or rejection of an application. Regulatory authorities have substantial discretion in the approval process and may refuse to accept any application or may decide that our data are insufficient for approval and require additional preclinical, clinical or other studies. In addition, varying interpretations of the data obtained from preclinical and clinical testing could delay, limit or prevent regulatory approval of a product candidate. Any regulatory approval we, or any future collaborators, ultimately obtain may be limited or subject to restrictions or post-approval commitments that render the approved product not commercially viable.

Moreover, principal investigators for our clinical trials may serve as scientific advisors or consultants to us from time to time and receive compensation in connection with such services. Under certain circumstances, we may be required to report some of these relationships to the FDA or other regulatory authority. The FDA or other regulatory authority may conclude that a financial relationship between us and a principal investigator has created a conflict of interest or otherwise affected interpretation of the study. The FDA or other regulatory authority may therefore question the integrity of the data generated at the applicable clinical trial site and the utility of the clinical trial itself may be jeopardized. This could result in a delay in approval, or rejection, of our marketing applications by the FDA or other regulatory authority, as the case may be, and may ultimately lead to the denial of regulatory approval of one or more of our product candidates.

Any delay in obtaining or failure to obtain required approvals could negatively impact our ability or that of any future collaborators to generate revenue from the particular product candidate, which likely would result in significant harm to our business and adversely impact our stock price.

Our failure to obtain regulatory approval in foreign jurisdictions would prevent our product candidates from being marketed abroad, and any approval we are granted for RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any of our other product candidates in the United States would not assure approval of product candidates in foreign jurisdictions.

In order to market any products outside of the United States, we must establish and comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements of other countries regarding clinical trial design, safety and efficacy. Clinical trials conducted in one country may not be accepted by regulatory authorities in other countries, and regulatory approval in one country does not mean that regulatory approval will be obtained in any other country. Approval procedures vary among countries and can involve additional product testing and validation and additional administrative review periods. Seeking foreign regulatory approvals could result in significant delays, difficulties and costs for us and may require additional preclinical studies or clinical trials which would be costly and time consuming and could delay or prevent introduction of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any of our other product candidates in those countries. We do not have experience in obtaining regulatory approval in international markets. If we or our partners fail to comply with regulatory requirements or to obtain and maintain required approvals, our target market will be reduced and our ability to realize the full market potential of our product candidates will be harmed.

Additionally, on June 23, 2016, the electorate in the United Kingdom voted in favor of leaving the European Union, commonly referred to as Brexit. On March 29, 2017, the country formally notified the European Union of its intention to withdraw pursuant to Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty. Since a significant proportion of the regulatory framework in the United Kingdom is derived from European Union directives and regulations, the referendum could materially impact the regulatory regime with respect to the approval of our product candidates in the United Kingdom or the European Union. Any delay in obtaining, or an inability to obtain, any regulatory approvals, as a result of Brexit or otherwise, would prevent us from commercializing our product candidates in the United Kingdom and/or the European Union and restrict our ability to generate revenue and achieve and sustain profitability. If any of these outcomes occur, we may be forced to restrict or delay efforts to seek regulatory approval in the United Kingdom and/or European Union for our product candidates, which could significantly and materially harm our business.

35

Even if we, or any future collaborators, obtain regulatory approvals for our product candidates, the terms of approvals and ongoing regulation of our products may limit how we manufacture and market our products, which could impair our ability to generate revenue.

Once regulatory approval has been granted, an approved product and its manufacturer and marketer are subject to ongoing review and extensive regulation. We, and any future collaborators, must therefore comply with requirements concerning advertising and promotion for any of our product candidates for which we or they obtain regulatory approval. Promotional communications with respect to prescription drugs are subject to a variety of legal and regulatory restrictions and must be consistent with the information in the product’s approved labeling. Thus, we and any future collaborators will not be able to promote any products we develop for indications or uses for which they are not approved.

In addition, manufacturers of approved products and those manufacturers’ facilities are required to comply with extensive FDA requirements, including ensuring that quality control and manufacturing procedures conform to current Good Manufacturing Practices, or cGMPs, which include requirements relating to quality control and quality assurance as well as the corresponding maintenance of records and documentation and reporting requirements. We, our contract manufacturers, any future collaborators and their contract manufacturers could be subject to periodic unannounced inspections by the FDA to monitor and ensure compliance with cGMPs. Despite our efforts to inspect and verify regulatory compliance, one or more of our third-party manufacturing vendors may be found on regulatory inspection by FDA or other authorities to be not in compliance with cGMP regulations, which may result in shutdown of the third-party vendor or invalidation of drug product lots or processes. In some cases, a product recall may be warranted or required, which would materially affect our ability to supply and market our drug products.

Accordingly, assuming we, or any future collaborators, receive regulatory approval for one or more of our product candidates, we, and any future collaborators, and our and their contract manufacturers will continue to expend time, money and effort in all areas of regulatory compliance, including manufacturing, production, product surveillance and quality control.

If we, and any future collaborators, are not able to comply with post-approval regulatory requirements, we, and any future collaborators, could have the regulatory approvals for our products withdrawn by regulatory authorities and our, or any future collaborators’, ability to market any future products could be limited, which could adversely affect our ability to achieve or sustain profitability. Further, the cost of compliance with post-approval regulations may have a negative effect on our operating results and financial condition.

We are subject to extensive government regulation and the failure to comply with these regulations may have a material adverse effect on our operations and business.

Both before and after approval of any product, we and our suppliers, contract manufacturers and clinical investigators are subject to extensive regulation by governmental authorities in the United States and other countries, covering, among other things, testing, manufacturing, quality control, clinical trials, post-marketing studies, labeling, advertising, promotion, distribution, import and export, governmental pricing, price reporting and rebate requirements. Failure to comply with applicable requirements could result in one or more of the following actions: warning or untitled letters; unanticipated expenditures; delays in approval or refusal to approve a product candidate; voluntary product recall; product seizure; interruption of manufacturing or clinical trials; operating or marketing restrictions; injunctions; criminal prosecution and civil or criminal penalties including fines and other monetary penalties; exclusion from federal health care programs such as Medicare and Medicaid; adverse publicity; and disruptions to our business. Further, government investigations into potential violations of these laws would require us to expend considerable resources and face adverse publicity and the potential disruption of our business even if we are ultimately found not to have committed a violation.

Obtaining FDA approval of our product candidates requires substantial time, effort and financial resources and may be subject to both expected and unforeseen delays, and there can be no assurance that any

36

approval will be granted for any of our product candidates on a timely basis, if at all. The FDA may decide that our data are insufficient for approval of our product candidates and require additional preclinical, clinical or other studies or additional work related to chemistry, manufacturing and controls. In addition, we, the FDA, IRBs or independent ethics committees may suspend or terminate human clinical trials at any time on various grounds, including a finding that the patients are or would be exposed to an unacceptable health risk or because of the way in which the investigators on which we rely carry out the trials. If we are required to conduct additional trials or to conduct other testing of our product candidates beyond that which we currently contemplate for regulatory approval, if we are unable to complete successfully our clinical trials or other testing, or if the results of these and other trials or tests fail to demonstrate efficacy or raise safety concerns, we may face substantial additional expenses, be delayed in obtaining regulatory approval for our product candidates or may never obtain regulatory approval.

We are also required to comply with extensive governmental regulatory requirements after a product has received marketing authorization. Governing regulatory authorities may require post-marketing studies that may negatively impact the commercial viability of a product. Once on the market, a product may become associated with previously undetected adverse effects and/or may experience manufacturing or other commercial difficulties. As a result of any of these or other problems, a product’s regulatory approval could be withdrawn, which could harm our business and operating results.

Any of our product candidates for which we, or any future collaborators, obtain regulatory approval in the future will be subject to ongoing obligations and continued regulatory review, which may result in significant additional expense. If approved, our product candidates could be subject to post-marketing restrictions or withdrawal from the market and we, or any future collaborators, may be subject to substantial penalties if we, or they, fail to comply with regulatory requirements or if we, or they, experience unanticipated problems with our products following approval.

Any of our product candidates for which we, or any future collaborators, obtain regulatory approval, as well as the manufacturing processes, post-approval studies, labeling, advertising and promotional activities for such product, among other things, will be subject to ongoing requirements of and review by the FDA, EMA and other regulatory authorities. These requirements include submissions of safety and other post-marketing information and reports, registration and listing requirements, requirements relating to manufacturing, quality control, quality assurance and corresponding maintenance of records and documents, requirements regarding the distribution of samples to physicians and recordkeeping. We and our contract manufacturers will also be subject to user fees and periodic inspection by the FDA, EMA and other regulatory authorities to monitor compliance with these requirements and the terms of any product approval we may obtain. Even if regulatory approval of a product candidate is granted, the approval may be subject to limitations on the indicated uses for which the product may be marketed or to the conditions of approval, including the requirement to implement a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy, or REMS.

The FDA, EMA and other regulatory authorities may also impose requirements for costly post-marketing studies or clinical trials and surveillance to monitor the safety or efficacy of a product. The FDA and other agencies, including the Department of Justice, closely regulate and monitor the post-approval marketing and promotion of products to ensure that they are manufactured, marketed and distributed only for the approved indications and in accordance with the provisions of the approved labeling. The FDA imposes stringent restrictions on manufacturers’ communications regarding off-label use and if we, or any future collaborators, do not market any of our product candidates for which we, or they, receive regulatory approval for only their approved indications, we, or they, may be subject to warnings or enforcement action for off-label marketing if it is alleged that we are doing so. Violation of the FDCA and other statutes relating to the promotion and advertising of prescription drugs may lead to investigations or allegations of violations of federal and state health care fraud and abuse laws and state consumer protection laws, including the False Claims Act.

37

In addition, later discovery of previously unknown adverse events or other problems with our products or their manufacturers or manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may yield various results, including:

The efforts of the Administration to pursue regulatory reform may limit FDA’s ability to engage in oversight and implementation activities in the normal course, and that could negatively impact our business.

The policies of the FDA and of other regulatory authorities may change and additional government regulations may be enacted that could prevent, limit or delay regulatory approval of our product candidates. We cannot predict the likelihood, nature or extent of government regulation that may arise from future legislation or administrative or executive action, either in the United States or abroad. For example, certain policies of the Trump administration may impact our business and industry. Namely, the Trump administration has taken several executive actions, including the issuance of a number of executive orders, that could impose significant burdens on, or otherwise materially delay, the FDA’s ability to engage in routine regulatory and oversight activities such as implementing statutes through rulemaking, issuance of guidance, and review and approval of marketing applications. On January 30, 2017, President Trump issued an executive order, applicable to all executive agencies, including the FDA, that requires that for each notice of proposed rulemaking or final regulation to be issued in fiscal year 2017, the agency shall identify at least two existing regulations to be repealed, unless prohibited by law. These requirements are referred to as the “two-for-one” provisions. This executive order includes a budget neutrality provision that requires the total incremental cost of all new regulations in the 2017 fiscal year, including repealed regulations, to be no greater than zero, except in limited circumstances. For fiscal years 2018 and beyond, the executive order requires agencies to identify regulations to offset any incremental cost of a new regulation. In interim guidance issued by the Office of Information and

38

Regulatory Affairs within OMB on February 2, 2017, the administration indicates that the “two-for-one” provisions may apply not only to agency regulations, but also to significant agency guidance documents, and on September 8, 2017, the FDA published notices in the Federal Register soliciting broad public comment to identify regulations that could be modified in compliance with these Executive Orders. It is difficult to predict how these requirements will be implemented, and the extent to which they will impact the FDA’s ability to exercise its regulatory authority. If these executive actions impose constraints on FDA’s ability to engage in oversight and implementation activities in the normal course, our business may be negatively impacted.

Our relationships with healthcare providers, physicians and third-party payors will be subject to applicable anti-kickback, fraud and abuse, privacy and transparency and other healthcare laws and regulations, which could expose us to criminal sanctions, civil penalties, exclusion from government healthcare programs, contractual damages, reputational harm and diminished profits and future earnings.

Healthcare providers, physicians and third party payors will play a primary role in the recommendation and prescription of any products for which we obtain regulatory approval. Our future arrangements with third party payors, healthcare providers and physicians may expose us to broadly applicable fraud and abuse and other healthcare laws and regulations that may constrain the business or financial arrangements and relationships through which we conduct our operations, including how we research, market, sell and distribute any products for which we obtain regulatory approval. These include the following:

39

Some state laws require pharmaceutical companies to comply with the pharmaceutical industry’s voluntary compliance guidelines and the relevant compliance guidance promulgated by the federal government and require manufacturers to report information related to payments and other transfers of value to physicians and other healthcare providers or marketing expenditures and pricing information. State and foreign laws also govern the privacy and security of health information in some circumstances, many of which differ from each other in significant ways and often are not pre-empted by HIPAA, thus complicating compliance efforts.

Efforts to ensure that our business arrangements with third parties, and our business generally, will comply with applicable healthcare laws and regulations will involve substantial costs. It is possible that governmental authorities will conclude that our business practices may not comply with current or future statutes, regulations, agency guidance or case law involving applicable fraud and abuse or other healthcare laws and regulations. If our operations are found to be in violation of any of these laws or any other governmental regulations that may apply to us, we may be subject to significant civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, fines, imprisonment, exclusion from government funded healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations. Defending against any such actions can be costly, time-consuming and may require significant financial and personnel resources. Therefore, even if we are successful in defending against any such actions that may be brought against us, our business may be impaired. If any of the physicians or other healthcare providers or entities with whom we expect to do business is found to be not in compliance with applicable laws, they may be subject to criminal, civil or administrative sanctions, including exclusions from government funded healthcare programs.

The provision of benefits or advantages to physicians to induce or encourage the prescription, recommendation, endorsement, purchase, supply, order or use of medicinal products is generally not permitted in the countries that form part of the European Union. Some European Union Member States, like the United Kingdom, through the United Kingdom Bribery Act 2010, have enacted laws explicitly prohibiting the provision of these type of benefits and advantages. Infringements of these laws can result in substantial fines and imprisonment.

Payments made to physicians in certain European Union Member States (e.g., France or Belgium) must be publically disclosed. Moreover, agreements with physicians often must be the subject of prior notification and approval by the physician’s employer, his or her competent professional organization and/or the regulatory authorities of the individual European Union Member States. These requirements are provided in the European Union Member State national laws, industry codes (e.g. the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations Disclosure and Healthcare Professionals Codes) or professional codes of conduct. Failure to comply with these requirements could result in reputational risk, public reprimands, administrative penalties, fines or imprisonment.

The collection and processing of personal data – including health data – in the European Union is currently governed by the provisions of the Data Protection Directive, as implemented into national laws by the European Union Member States. The new European Union-wide General Data Protection Regulation, or GDPR, entered into force in May 2016 and will become applicable on May 25, 2018, replacing the current data

40

protection laws of each European Union Member State. The GDPR will implement more stringent operational requirements for processors and controllers of personal data, including, for example, expanded disclosures about how personal information is to be used, limitations on retention of information, increased requirements pertaining to health data and pseudonymised (i.e., key-coded) data, mandatory data breach notification requirements and higher standards for controllers to demonstrate that they have obtained valid consent for certain data processing activities. The GDPR provides that European Union Member States may make their own further laws and regulations in relation to the processing of genetic, biometric or health data, which could result in differences between Member States, limit our ability to use and share personal data or could cause our costs to increase, and harm our business and financial condition. We are also subject to evolving and strict rules on the transfer of personal data out of the European Union to the United States. Failure to comply with European Union data protection laws may result in fines (for example, of up to €20,000,000 or up to 4% of the total worldwide annual turnover of the preceding financial year (whichever is higher) under the GDPR) and other administrative penalties, which may be onerous and adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

Current and future legislation may increase the difficulty and cost for us and any collaborators to obtain regulatory approval of and commercialize our product candidates and affect the prices we, or they, may obtain.

In the United States and foreign jurisdictions, there have been a number of legislative and regulatory changes and proposed changes regarding the healthcare system that could prevent or delay regulatory approval of our product candidates, restrict or regulate post-approval activities and affect our ability to profitably sell any product candidates for which we obtain regulatory approval. We expect that current laws, as well as other healthcare reform measures that may be adopted in the future, may result in additional reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding, more rigorous coverage criteria, new payment methodologies and in additional downward pressure on the price that we, or any collaborators, may receive for any approved products.

In March 2010, President Obama signed into law the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, or collectively the ACA. Among the provisions of the ACA of potential importance to our business and our product candidates are the following:

41

In addition, other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted since the ACA was enacted. In August 2011, the Budget Control Act of 2011, among other things, included aggregate reductions to Medicare payments to providers of 2% per fiscal year, which went into effect in April 2013 and will remain in effect through 2025 unless additional Congressional action is taken. The American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012, among other things, reduced Medicare payments to several providers and increased the statute of limitations period for the government to recover overpayments to providers from three to five years. These new laws may result in additional reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding and otherwise affect the prices we may obtain for any of our product candidates for which we may obtain regulatory approval or the frequency with which any such product candidate is prescribed or used.

With the new Administration and Congress, there will likely be additional administrative or legislative changes, including modification, repeal, or replacement of all, or certain provisions of, the ACA. In January 2017, Congress voted to adopt a budget resolution for fiscal year 2017, or the Budget Resolution, that authorizes the implementation of legislation that would repeal portions of the ACA. The Budget Resolution is not a law, however, it is widely viewed as the first step toward the passage of legislation that would repeal certain aspects of the ACA. Further, on January 20, 2017, President Trump signed an Executive Order directing federal agencies with authorities and responsibilities under the ACA to waive, defer, grant exemptions from, or delay the implementation of any provision of the ACA that would impose a fiscal or regulatory burden on states, individuals, healthcare providers, health insurers, or manufacturers of pharmaceuticals or medical devices.

At the same time, Congress has focused on additional legislative changes, including in particular repeal and replacement of certain provisions of the ACA. It remains to be seen, however, whether new legislation reforming, repealing or replacing the ACA will be enacted and, if so, precisely what the new legislation will provide and what impact it will have on the availability of healthcare and containing or lowering the cost of healthcare. It is possible that these reform, repeal and replacement initiatives, if enacted into law, could ultimately result in fewer individuals having health insurance coverage or in individuals having insurance coverage with less generous benefits. It is also possible that some ACA provisions that generally are not favorable for the research-based pharmaceutical industry could also be repealed along with ACA coverage expansion provisions. At this point, healthcare reform and its impacts on us are highly uncertain in many respects.

The costs of prescription pharmaceuticals in the United States has also been the subject of considerable discussion in the United States, and members of Congress and the Administration have stated that they will address such costs through new legislative and administrative measures. There have been several U.S.

42

Congressional inquiries and proposed bills designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, reduce the cost of prescription drugs under Medicare, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drugs.

In addition, individual states have also become increasingly active in passing legislation and implementing regulations designed to control pharmaceutical product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access, and to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing.

The pricing of prescription pharmaceuticals is also subject to governmental control outside the United States. In these countries, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after the receipt of regulatory approval for a product. To obtain reimbursement or pricing approval in some countries, we may be required to conduct a clinical trial that compares the cost-effectiveness of our product candidates to other available therapies. If reimbursement of our products is unavailable or limited in scope or amount, or if pricing is set at unsatisfactory levels, our ability to generate revenues and become profitable could be impaired.

Governments outside the United States may impose strict price controls, which may adversely affect our revenues, if any.

In some countries, including Member States of the European Union, the pricing of prescription drugs is subject to governmental control. Additional countries may adopt similar approaches to the pricing of prescription drugs. In such countries, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after receipt of regulatory approval for a product. In addition, there can be considerable pressure by governments and other stakeholders on prices and reimbursement levels, including as part of cost containment measures. Political, economic and regulatory developments may further complicate pricing negotiations, and pricing negotiations may continue after coverage and reimbursement have been obtained. Reference pricing used by various countries and parallel distribution, or arbitrage between low-priced and high-priced countries, can further reduce prices. In some countries, we may be required to conduct a clinical study or other studies that compare the cost-effectiveness of any of our product candidates to other available therapies in order to obtain or maintain reimbursement or pricing approval, which is time-consuming and costly. We cannot be sure that such prices and reimbursement will be acceptable to us or our strategic partners. Publication of discounts by third-party payors or authorities may lead to further pressure on the prices or reimbursement levels within the country of publication and other countries. If pricing is set at unsatisfactory levels or if reimbursement of our products is unavailable or limited in scope or amount, our revenues from sales by us or our strategic partners and the potential profitability of any of our product candidates in those countries would be negatively affected.

Laws and regulations governing any international operations we may have in the future may preclude us from developing, manufacturing and selling certain products outside of the United States and require us to develop and implement costly compliance programs.

If we further expand our operations outside of the United States, we must dedicate additional resources to comply with numerous laws and regulations in each jurisdiction in which we plan to operate. The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, or FCPA, prohibits any U.S. individual or business from paying, offering, authorizing payment or offering of anything of value, directly or indirectly, to any foreign official, political party or candidate for the purpose of influencing any act or decision of the foreign entity in order to assist the individual or business in obtaining or retaining business. The FCPA also obligates companies whose securities are listed in the United States to comply with certain accounting provisions requiring us to maintain books and records that accurately and fairly reflect all transactions of the corporation, including international subsidiaries, and to devise and maintain an adequate system of internal accounting controls for international operations.

Compliance with the FCPA is expensive and difficult, particularly in countries in which corruption is a recognized problem. In addition, the FCPA presents particular challenges in the pharmaceutical industry,

43

because, in many countries, hospitals are operated by the government, and doctors and other hospital employees are considered foreign officials. Certain payments to hospitals in connection with clinical trials and other work have been deemed to be improper payments to government officials and have led to FCPA enforcement actions.

Various laws, regulations and executive orders also restrict the use and dissemination outside of the United States, or the sharing with certain non-U.S. nationals, of information classified for national security purposes, as well as certain products and technical data relating to those products. If we expand our presence outside of the United States, it will require us to dedicate additional resources to comply with these laws, and these laws may preclude us from developing, manufacturing, or selling certain products and product candidates outside of the United States, which could limit our growth potential and increase our development costs.

The failure to comply with laws governing international business practices may result in substantial civil and criminal penalties and suspension or debarment from government contracting. The Securities and Exchange Commission, or SEC, also may suspend or bar issuers from trading securities on U.S. exchanges for violations of the FCPA’s accounting provisions.

If we fail to comply with environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, we could become subject to fines or penalties or incur costs that could harm our business.

We are subject to numerous environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, including those governing laboratory procedures and the handling, use, storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous materials and wastes. From time to time and in the future, our operations may involve the use of hazardous and flammable materials, including chemicals and biological materials, and may also produce hazardous waste products. Even if we contract with third parties for the disposal of these materials and waste products, we cannot completely eliminate the risk of contamination or injury resulting from these materials. In the event of contamination or injury resulting from the use or disposal of our hazardous materials, we could be held liable for any resulting damages, and any liability could exceed our resources. We also could incur significant costs associated with civil or criminal fines and penalties for failure to comply with such laws and regulations.

We maintain workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses we may incur due to injuries to our employees, but this insurance may not provide adequate coverage against potential liabilities. However, we do not maintain insurance for environmental liability or toxic tort claims that may be asserted against us.

In addition, we may incur substantial costs in order to comply with current or future environmental, health and safety laws and regulations. Current or future environmental laws and regulations may impair our research, development or production efforts. In addition, failure to comply with these laws and regulations may result in substantial fines, penalties or other sanctions.

Risks Related to Our Intellectual Property

Our commercial success depends on our ability to protect our intellectual property and proprietary technology.

Our commercial success depends in large part on our ability to obtain and maintain intellectual property rights protection through patents, trademarks, and trade secrets in the United States and other countries with respect to our proprietary product candidates. If we do not adequately protect our intellectual property rights, competitors may be able to erode, negate or preempt any competitive advantage we may have, which could harm our business and ability to achieve profitability. To protect our proprietary position, we have patent applications and may file other patent applications in the United States or abroad related to our product candidates that are important to our business; we may also license or purchase patent applications filed by others. The patent application and approval process is expensive and time-consuming. We may not be able to file and prosecute all necessary or desirable patent applications at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner.

44

Agreements through which we license patent rights may not give us control over patent prosecution or maintenance, so that we may not be able to control which claims or arguments are presented, how claims are amended, and may not be able to secure, maintain, or successfully enforce necessary or desirable patent protection from those patent rights. We have not had and do not have primary control over patent prosecution and maintenance for certain of the patents and patent applications we license, and therefore cannot guarantee that these patents and applications will be prosecuted or maintained in a manner consistent with the best interests of our business. We cannot be certain that patent prosecution and maintenance activities by our licensors have been or will be conducted in compliance with applicable laws and regulations or will result in valid and enforceable patents.

If the scope of the patent protection we or our licensors obtain is not sufficiently broad, we may not be able to prevent others from developing and commercializing technology and products similar or identical to ours. The degree of patent protection we require to successfully compete in the marketplace may be unavailable or severely limited in some cases and may not adequately protect our rights or permit us to gain or keep any competitive advantage. We cannot provide any assurances that any of our licensed patents have, or that any of our pending owned or licensed patent applications that mature into issued patents will include, claims with a scope sufficient to protect our proprietary platform or otherwise provide any competitive advantage, nor can we assure you that our licenses are or will remain in force. Other parties have developed or may develop technologies that may be related or competitive with our approach, and may have filed or may file patent applications and may have been issued or may be issued patents with claims that overlap or conflict with our patent applications, either by claiming the same compounds, formulations or methods or by claiming subject matter that could dominate our patent position. In addition, the laws of foreign countries may not protect our rights to the same extent as the laws of the United States. Furthermore, patents have a limited lifespan. In the United States, the natural expiration of a patent is generally twenty years after it is filed. Various extensions may be available; however, the life of a patent, and the protection it affords, is limited. Given the amount of time required for the development, testing and regulatory review of new product candidates, patents protecting such candidates might expire before or shortly after such candidates are commercialized. As a result, our patent portfolio may not provide us with adequate and continuing patent protection sufficient to exclude others from commercializing products similar to our product candidates. In addition, the patent portfolio licensed to us is, or may be, licensed to third parties, such as outside our field, and such third parties may have certain enforcement rights. Thus, patents licensed to us could be put at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly in litigation filed by or against another licensee or in administrative proceedings brought by or against another licensee in response to such litigation or for other reasons.

Even if they are unchallenged, our owned and licensed patents and pending patent applications, if issued, may not provide us with any meaningful protection or prevent competitors from designing around our patent claims to circumvent our patents by developing similar or alternative technologies or therapeutics in a non-infringing manner. For example, a third party may develop a competitive therapy that provides benefits similar to one or more of our product candidates but falls outside the scope of our patent protection or license rights. If the patent protection provided by the patents and patent applications we hold or pursue with respect to our product candidates is not sufficiently broad to impede such competition, our ability to successfully commercialize our product candidates could be negatively affected, which would harm our business. Currently, a significant portion of our patents and patent applications are in-licensed, though similar risks would apply to any patents or patent applications that we now own or may own or in-license in the future.

We, or any future partners, collaborators, or licensees, may fail to identify patentable aspects of inventions made in the course of development and commercialization activities before it is too late to obtain patent protection on them. Therefore, we may miss potential opportunities to strengthen our patent position.

It is possible that defects of form in the preparation or filing of our patents or patent applications may exist, or may arise in the future, for example with respect to proper priority claims, inventorship, claim scope, or requests for patent term adjustments. If we or our partners, collaborators, licensees, or licensors, whether current

45

or future, fail to establish, maintain or protect such patents and other intellectual property rights, such rights may be reduced or eliminated. If our partners, collaborators, licensees, or licensors, are not fully cooperative or disagree with us as to the prosecution, maintenance or enforcement of any patent rights, such patent rights could be compromised. If there are material defects in the form, preparation, prosecution, or enforcement of our patents or patent applications, such patents may be invalid and/or unenforceable, and such applications may never result in valid, enforceable patents. Any of these outcomes could impair our ability to prevent competition from third parties, which may have an adverse impact on our business.

The patent position of biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies carries uncertainty. In addition, the determination of patent rights with respect to pharmaceutical compounds commonly involves complex legal and factual questions, which are dependent upon the current legal and intellectual property context, extant legal precedent and interpretations of the law by individuals. As a result, the issuance, scope, validity, enforceability and commercial value of our patent rights are characterized by uncertainty.

Pending patent applications cannot be enforced against third parties practicing the technology claimed in such applications unless and until a patent issues from such applications. Assuming the other requirements for patentability are met, currently, the first to file a patent application is generally entitled to the patent. However, prior to March 16, 2013, in the United States, the first to invent was entitled to the patent. Publications of discoveries in the scientific literature often lag behind the actual discoveries, and patent applications in the United States and other jurisdictions are not published until 18 months after filing, or in some cases not at all. Therefore, we cannot be certain that we were the first to make the inventions claimed in our patents or pending patent applications, or that we were the first to file for patent protection of such inventions. Similarly, we cannot be certain that parties from whom we do or may license or purchase patent rights were the first to make relevant claimed inventions, or were the first to file for patent protection for them. If third parties have filed prior patent applications on inventions claimed in our patents or applications that were filed on or before March 15, 2013, an interference proceeding in the United States can be initiated by such third parties to determine who was the first to invent any of the subject matter covered by the patent claims of our applications. If third parties have filed such prior applications after March 15, 2013, a derivation proceeding in the United States can be initiated by such third parties to determine whether our invention was derived from theirs.

Moreover, because the issuance of a patent is not conclusive as to its inventorship, scope, validity or enforceability, our patents or pending patent applications may be challenged in the courts or patent offices in the United States and abroad. There is no assurance that all of the potentially relevant prior art relating to our patents and patent applications has been found. If such prior art exists, it may be used to invalidate a patent, or may prevent a patent from issuing from a pending patent application. For example, such patent filings may be subject to a third-party submission of prior art to the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, or USPTO, or to other patent offices around the world. Alternately or additionally, we may become involved in post-grant review procedures, oppositions, derivation proceedings, ex parte reexaminations, inter partes review, supplemental examinations, or interference proceedings or challenges in district court, in the United States or in various foreign patent offices, including both national and regional, challenging patents or patent applications in which we have rights, including patents on which we rely to protect our business. An adverse determination in any such challenges may result in loss of the patent or in patent or patent application claims being narrowed, invalidated or held unenforceable, in whole or in part, or in denial of the patent application or loss or reduction in the scope of one or more claims of the patent or patent application, any of which could limit our ability to stop others from using or commercializing similar or identical technology and products, or limit the duration of the patent protection of our technology and products. In addition, given the amount of time required for the development, testing and regulatory review of new product candidates, patents protecting such candidates might expire before or shortly after such candidates are commercialized.

Pending and future patent applications may not result in patents being issued that protect our business, in whole or in part, or which effectively prevent others from commercializing competitive products. Competitors may also be able to design around our patents. Changes in either the patent laws or interpretation of the patent

46

laws in the United States and other countries may diminish the value of our patents or narrow the scope of our patent protection. In addition, the laws of foreign countries may not protect our rights to the same extent or in the same manner as the laws of the United States. For example, patent laws in various jurisdictions, including significant commercial markets such as Europe, restrict the patentability of methods of treatment of the human body more than United States law does. If these developments were to occur, they could have a material adverse effect on our ability to generate revenue.

The patent application process is subject to numerous risks and uncertainties, and there can be no assurance that we or any of our future development partners will be successful in protecting our product candidates by obtaining and defending patents. These risks and uncertainties include the following:

Issued patents that we have or may obtain or license may not provide us with any meaningful protection, prevent competitors from competing with us or otherwise provide us with any competitive advantage. Our competitors may be able to circumvent our patents by developing similar or alternative technologies or products in a non-infringing manner. Our competitors may also seek approval to market their own products similar to or otherwise competitive with our products. Alternatively, our competitors may seek to market generic versions of any approved products by submitting ANDAs to the FDA in which they claim that patents owned or licensed by us are invalid, unenforceable or not infringed. In these circumstances, we may need to defend or assert our patents, or both, including by filing lawsuits alleging patent infringement. In any of these types of proceedings, a court or other agency with jurisdiction may find our patents invalid or unenforceable, or that our competitors are competing in a non-infringing manner. Thus, even if we have valid and enforceable patents, these patents still may not provide protection against competing products or processes sufficient to achieve our business objectives.

In addition, we rely on the protection of our trade secrets and proprietary, unpatented know-how. Although we have taken steps to protect our trade secrets and unpatented know-how, including entering into confidentiality agreements with third parties, and confidential information and invention assignment agreements with employees, consultants, collaborators, vendors, and advisors, we cannot provide any assurances that all such

47

agreements have been duly executed, and third parties may still obtain this information or may come upon this or similar information independently. It is possible that technology relevant to our business will be independently developed by a person who is not a party to such a confidentiality or invention assignment agreement. We may not be able to prevent the unauthorized disclosure or use of our technical knowledge or trade secrets by consultants, collaborators, vendors, advisors, former employees and current employees. Furthermore, if the parties to our confidentiality agreements breach or violate the terms of these agreement, we may not have adequate remedies for any such breach or violation, and we could lose our trade secrets as a consequence of such breaches or violations. Our trade secrets could otherwise become known or be independently discovered by our competitors. Additionally, if the steps taken to maintain our trade secrets are deemed inadequate, we may have insufficient recourse against third parties for misappropriating our trade secrets. If any of these events occurs or if we otherwise lose protection for our trade secrets or proprietary know-how, our business may be harmed.

We depend on intellectual property licensed from third parties and termination of any of these licenses could result in the loss of significant rights, which would harm our business.

In March 2017, we entered into a license agreement with Novartis, or the Novartis License, pursuant to which we were granted an exclusive, field-restricted, worldwide license to certain intellectual property rights owned or controlled by Novartis, including patents, patent applications, proprietary information, know-how and other intellectual property, to develop, commercialize and sell one or more therapeutic products comprising RTB101 or RTB101 and everolimus in a fixed dose combination.

We are dependent on these patents, know-how and proprietary technology, licensed from Novartis. Any termination of this license, or a finding that such intellectual property lacks legal effect, could result in the loss of significant rights and could harm our ability to commercialize any product candidates. See the section entitled “Business—Intellectual Property” for additional information regarding our license agreements.

Disputes may also arise between us and our licensor, our licensor and its licensors, or us and third parties that co-own intellectual property with our licensor or its licensors, regarding intellectual property subject to a license agreement, including those relating to:

48

If disputes over intellectual property that we have licensed prevent or impair our ability to maintain our current licensing arrangements on acceptable terms, or are insufficient to provide us the necessary rights to use the intellectual property, we may be unable to successfully develop and commercialize the affected product candidates. If we or any such licensors fail to adequately protect this intellectual property, our ability to commercialize our products could suffer.

Novartis may partially terminate the license agreement with respect to everolimus if we fail or cease for three years to use commercially reasonable efforts to research, develop and commercialize a product using everolimus, provided that our license related to RTB101 and Novartis’s license to our improvements related to everolimus will continue. Additionally, either party may terminate the Novartis License if the other party commits a material breach and fails to cure such breach within 60 days after written notice. If Novartis unilaterally terminates the Novartis License, the research and development of RTB101 or RTB101 and everolimus in a fixed dose combination would be suspended, and we may be unable to research, develop and license future product candidates.

We may be required to pay certain milestones and royalties under our license agreements with third-party licensors.

Under our current and future license agreements, we may be required to pay milestones and royalties based on our revenues from sales of our products utilizing the technologies licensed or sublicensed from Novartis or other licensors and these royalty payments could adversely affect the overall profitability for us of any products that we may seek to commercialize. In order to maintain our license rights under current and future license agreements, we may need to meet certain specified milestones, subject to certain cure provisions, in the development of our product candidates and in the raising of funding. In addition, these agreements may contain diligence milestones and we may not be successful in meeting all of the milestones in the future on a timely basis or at all, which could result in termination of our rights under such agreements. We may need to outsource and rely on third parties for many aspects of the clinical development, sales and marketing of our products covered under our current and future license agreements. Delay or failure by these third parties could adversely affect the continuation of our license agreements with their third-party licensors.

It is difficult and costly to protect our intellectual property and our proprietary technologies, and we may not be able to ensure their protection.

Our commercial success will depend in part on obtaining and maintaining patent protection and trade secret protection for the use, formulation and structure of our products and product candidates, the methods used to manufacture them, the related therapeutic targets and associated methods of treatment as well as on successfully defending these patents against potential third-party challenges. Our ability to protect our products and product candidates from unauthorized making, using, selling, offering to sell or importing by third parties is dependent on the extent to which we have rights under valid and enforceable patents that cover these activities.

The patent positions of pharmaceutical, biotechnology and other life sciences companies can be highly uncertain and involve complex legal and factual questions for which important legal principles remain unresolved. Changes in either the patent laws or in interpretations of patent laws in the United States and other countries may diminish the value of our intellectual property. Further, the determination that a patent application or patent claim meets all of the requirements for patentability is a subjective determination based on the application of law and jurisprudence. The ultimate determination by the USPTO or by a court or other trier of fact in the United States, or corresponding foreign national patent offices or courts, on whether a claim meets all requirements of patentability cannot be assured. Although we have conducted searches for third-party publications, patents and other information that may affect the patentability of claims in our various patent applications and patents, we cannot be certain that all relevant information has been identified. Accordingly, we cannot predict the breadth of claims that may be allowed or enforced in our owned patents or patent applications, in our licensed patents or patent applications or in third-party patents.

49

We cannot provide assurances that any of our patent applications will be found to be patentable, including over our own or our licensors’ prior art publications or patent literature, or will issue as patents. Neither can we make assurances as to the scope of any claims that may issue from our pending and future patent applications nor to the outcome of any proceedings by any potential third parties that could challenge the patentability, validity or enforceability of our patents and patent applications in the United States or foreign jurisdictions. Any such challenge, if successful, could limit patent protection for our products and product candidates and/or materially harm our business.

The degree of future protection for our proprietary rights is uncertain because legal means afford only limited protection and may not adequately protect our rights or permit us to gain or keep our competitive advantage. For example:

In addition, to the extent that we are unable to obtain and maintain patent protection for one of our products or product candidates or in the event that such patent protection expires, it may no longer be cost-effective to extend our portfolio by pursuing additional development of a product or product candidate for follow-on indications.

We also may rely on trade secrets to protect our technologies or products, especially where we do not believe patent protection is appropriate or obtainable. Also, we cannot provide any assurances that any of our licensed patents have claims with a scope sufficient to protect our technology or otherwise provide any competitive advantage, nor can we assure you that our licenses are or will remain in full force or effect, in which case we would similarly rely on trade secrets. However, trade secrets are difficult to protect. Although we use reasonable efforts to protect our trade secrets, our employees, consultants, contractors, outside scientific collaborators and other advisers may unintentionally or willfully disclose our information to competitors. Enforcing a claim that a third-party entity illegally obtained and is using any of our trade secrets is expensive and time-consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. In addition, courts outside the United States are sometimes less willing to protect trade secrets. Moreover, our competitors may independently develop equivalent knowledge, methods and know-how. Notably, proprietary technology protected by a trade secret does not preempt the patenting of independently developed equivalent technology, even if such equivalent technology is invented subsequent to the technology protected by a trade secret.

50

Obtaining and maintaining patent protection depends on compliance with various procedural, document submission, fee payment and other requirements imposed by governmental patent agencies, and our patent protection could be reduced or eliminated for non-compliance with these requirements.

Periodic maintenance fees, renewal fees, annuity fees and various other governmental fees on patents and applications are required to be paid to the USPTO and various governmental patent agencies outside of the United States in several stages over the lifetime of the patents and applications. The USPTO and various non-U.S. governmental patent agencies require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment and other similar provisions during the patent application process and after a patent has issued. There are situations in which non-compliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. In such a circumstance, competitors may be able to enter the market earlier than otherwise would be the case. Under the terms of some of our current and future licenses, we may not have the ability to maintain patents or prosecute patent applications in the portfolio, and may therefore have to rely on third parties to comply with these requirements.

Patent terms may be inadequate to protect our competitive position on our products for an adequate amount of time.

Given the amount of time required for the development, testing and regulatory review of new product candidates, patents protecting such candidates might expire before or shortly after such candidates are commercialized. We expect to seek extensions of patent terms in the United States and, if available, in other countries where we are prosecuting patents. In the United States, the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984 permits a patent term extension of up to five years beyond the normal expiration of the patent, which is limited to the approved indication (or any additional indications approved during the period of extension). We might not be granted an extension because of, for example, failure to apply within applicable periods, failure to apply prior to the expiration of relevant patents or otherwise failure to satisfy any of the numerous applicable requirements. Moreover, the applicable authorities, including the FDA and the USPTO in the United States, and any equivalent regulatory authority in other countries, may not agree with our assessment of whether such extensions are available, and may refuse to grant extensions to our patents, or may grant more limited extensions than we request. If this occurs, our competitors may be able to obtain approval of competing products following our patent expiration by referencing our clinical and preclinical data and launch their product earlier than might otherwise be the case. If this were to occur, it could have a material adverse effect on our ability to generate revenue.

Changes to patent law in the United States and other jurisdictions could diminish the value of patents in general, thereby impairing our ability to protect our products.

As is the case with other biopharmaceutical companies, our commercial success is heavily dependent on intellectual property, particularly patents. Obtaining and enforcing patents in the biopharmaceutical industry involves both technological and legal complexity and is therefore costly, time consuming and inherently uncertain. Recent wide-ranging patent reform legislation in the United States, including the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act, or the America Invents Act, could increase those uncertainties and costs. The America Invents Act was signed into law on September 16, 2011, and many of the substantive changes became effective on March 16, 2013. The America Invents Act reforms United States patent law in part by changing the U.S. patent system from a “first to invent” system to a “first inventor to file” system, expanding the definition of prior art, and developing a post-grant review system. This legislation changes United States patent law in a way that may weaken our ability to obtain patent protection in the United States for those applications filed after March 16, 2013.

Further, the America Invents Act created new procedures to challenge the validity of issued patents in the United States, including post-grant review and inter partes review proceedings, which some third parties have been using to cause the cancellation of selected or all claims of issued patents of competitors. For a patent with

51

an effective filing date of March 16, 2013 or later, a petition for post-grant review can be filed by a third party in a nine month window from issuance of the patent. A petition for inter partes review can be filed immediately following the issuance of a patent if the patent has an effective filing date prior to March 16, 2013. A petition for inter partes review can be filed after the nine month period for filing a post-grant review petition has expired for a patent with an effective filing date of March 16, 2013 or later. Post-grant review proceedings can be brought on any ground of invalidity, whereas inter partes review proceedings can only raise an invalidity challenge based on published prior art and patents. These adversarial actions at the USPTO review patent claims without the presumption of validity afforded to U.S. patents in lawsuits in U.S. federal courts, and use a lower burden of proof than used in litigation in U.S. federal courts. Therefore, it is generally considered easier for a competitor or third party to have a U.S. patent invalidated in a USPTO post-grant review or inter partes review proceeding than invalidated in a litigation in a U.S. federal court. If any of our patents are challenged by a third party in such a USPTO proceeding, there is no guarantee that we or our licensors or collaborators will be successful in defending the patent, which may result in a loss of the challenged patent right to us.

In addition, recent court rulings in cases such as Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc., BRCA1- & BRCA2-Based Hereditary Cancer Test Patent Litigation, and Promega Corp. v. Life Technologies Corp. have narrowed the scope of patent protection available in certain circumstances and weakened the rights of patent owners in certain situations. In addition to increasing uncertainty with regard to our ability to obtain patents in the future, this combination of events has created uncertainty with respect to the value of patents once obtained. Depending on future actions by the U.S. Congress, the U.S. courts, the USPTO and the relevant law-making bodies in other countries, the laws and regulations governing patents could change in unpredictable ways that would weaken our ability to obtain new patents or to enforce our existing patents and patents that we might obtain in the future.

We may not be able to enforce our intellectual property rights throughout the world.

Filing, prosecuting, enforcing and defending patents on our product candidates in all countries throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive, and our intellectual property rights in some countries outside the United States can be less extensive than those in the United States. The requirements for patentability may differ in certain countries, particularly in developing countries; thus, even in countries where we do pursue patent protection, there can be no assurance that any patents will issue with claims that cover our products.

Moreover, our ability to protect and enforce our intellectual property rights may be adversely affected by unforeseen changes in foreign intellectual property laws. Additionally, laws of some countries outside of the United States and Europe do not afford intellectual property protection to the same extent as the laws of the United States and Europe. Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in certain foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of some countries, including India, China and other developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents and other intellectual property rights. This could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our patents or the misappropriation of our other intellectual property rights. For example, many foreign countries have compulsory licensing laws under which a patent owner must grant licenses to third parties. Consequently, we may not be able to prevent third parties from practicing our inventions in certain countries outside the United States and Europe or from selling or importing products made from our inventions in and into the United States or other jurisdictions. Competitors may use our technologies in jurisdictions where we have not obtained patent protection to develop and market their own products and, further, may export otherwise infringing products to territories where we have patent protection, if our ability to enforce our patents to stop infringing activities is inadequate. These products may compete with our products, and our patents or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from competing.

Agreements through which we license patent rights may not give us sufficient rights to permit us to pursue enforcement of our licensed patents or defense of any claims asserting the invalidity of these patents (or control of such enforcement or defense) of such patent rights in all relevant jurisdictions as requirements may vary.

52

Proceedings to enforce our patent rights, whether or not successful, could result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and resources from other aspects of our business. Moreover, such proceedings could put our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and our patent applications at risk of not issuing and could provoke third parties to assert claims against us. We may not prevail in any lawsuits that we initiate and the damages or other remedies awarded, if any, may not be commercially meaningful. Furthermore, while we intend to protect our intellectual property rights in major markets for our products, we cannot ensure that we will be able to initiate or maintain similar efforts in all jurisdictions in which we may wish to market our products, if approved. Accordingly, our efforts to protect our intellectual property rights in such countries may be inadequate.

Others may challenge inventorship or claim an ownership interest in our intellectual property which could expose it to litigation and have a significant adverse effect on its prospects.

A third party or former employee or collaborator may claim an ownership interest in one or more of our or our licensors’ patents or other proprietary or intellectual property rights. A third party could bring legal actions against us and seek monetary damages and/or enjoin clinical testing, manufacturing and marketing of the affected product or products. While we are presently unaware of any claims or assertions by third-parties with respect to our patents or other intellectual property, we cannot guarantee that a third party will not assert a claim or an interest in any of such patents or intellectual property. If we become involved in any litigation, it could consume a substantial portion of our resources, and cause a significant diversion of effort by our technical and management personnel.

If we are sued for infringing intellectual property rights of third parties, such litigation could be costly and time consuming and could prevent or delay us from developing or commercializing our product candidates.

Our commercial success depends, in part, on our ability to develop, manufacture, market and sell our product candidates without infringing the intellectual property and other proprietary rights of third parties. Third parties may have U.S. and non-U.S. issued patents and pending patent applications relating to compounds, methods of manufacturing compounds and/or methods of use for the treatment of the disease indications for which we are developing our product candidates. If any third-party patents or patent applications are found to cover our product candidates or their methods of use or manufacture, we may not be free to manufacture or market our product candidates as planned without obtaining a license, which may not be available on commercially reasonable terms, or at all.

There is a substantial amount of intellectual property litigation in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries, and we may become party to, or threatened with, litigation or other adversarial proceedings regarding intellectual property rights with respect to our products candidates, including interference and post-grant proceedings before the USPTO. There may be third-party patents or patent applications with claims to materials, formulations, methods of manufacture or methods for treatment related to the composition, use or manufacture of our product candidates. We cannot guarantee that any of our patent searches or analyses including, but not limited to, the identification of relevant patents, the scope of patent claims or the expiration of relevant patents are complete or thorough, nor can we be certain that we have identified each and every patent and pending application in the United States and abroad that is relevant to or necessary for the commercialization of our product candidates in any jurisdiction. Because patent applications can take many years to issue, there may be currently pending patent applications which may later result in issued patents that our product candidates may be accused of infringing. In addition, third parties may obtain patents in the future and claim that use of our technologies infringes upon these patents. Accordingly, third parties may assert infringement claims against us based on intellectual property rights that exist now or arise in the future. The outcome of intellectual property litigation is subject to uncertainties that cannot be adequately quantified in advance. The pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries have produced a significant number of patents, and it may not always be clear to industry participants, including us, which patents cover various types of products or methods of use or manufacture. The scope of protection afforded by a patent is subject to interpretation by the courts, and the interpretation is not always uniform. If we were sued for patent infringement, we would need to demonstrate that

53

our product candidates, products or methods either do not infringe the patent claims of the relevant patent or that the patent claims are invalid or unenforceable, and we may not be able to do this. Proving invalidity is difficult. For example, in the United States, proving invalidity requires a showing of clear and convincing evidence to overcome the presumption of validity enjoyed by issued patents. Even if we are successful in these proceedings, we may incur substantial costs and the time and attention of our management and scientific personnel could be diverted in pursuing these proceedings, which could significantly harm our business and operating results. In addition, we may not have sufficient resources to bring these actions to a successful conclusion.

If we are found to infringe a third party’s intellectual property rights, we could be forced, including by court order, to cease developing, manufacturing or commercializing the infringing product candidate or product. Alternatively, we may be required to obtain a license from such third party in order to use the infringing technology and continue developing, manufacturing or marketing the infringing product candidate or product. If we were required to obtain a license to continue to manufacture or market the affected product, we may be required to pay substantial royalties or grant cross-licenses to our patents. We cannot, however, assure you that any such license will be available on acceptable terms, if at all. Ultimately, we could be prevented from commercializing a product, or be forced to cease some aspect of our business operations as a result of claims of patent infringement or violation of other intellectual property rights, Further, the outcome of intellectual property litigation is subject to uncertainties that cannot be adequately quantified in advance, including the demeanor and credibility of witnesses and the identity of any adverse party. This is especially true in intellectual property cases that may turn on the testimony of experts as to technical facts upon which experts may reasonably disagree. Furthermore, we may not be able to obtain any required license on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Even if we were able to obtain a license, it could be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors access to the same technologies licensed to us; alternatively or additionally it could include terms that impede or destroy our ability to compete successfully in the commercial marketplace. In addition, we could be found liable for monetary damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees if we are found to have willfully infringed a patent. A finding of infringement could prevent us from commercializing our product candidates or force us to cease some of our business operations, which could harm our business. Claims that we have misappropriated the confidential information or trade secrets of third parties could have a similar negative impact on our business.

We may be subject to claims by third parties asserting that our employees or we have misappropriated their intellectual property, or claiming ownership of what we regard as our own intellectual property.

Many of our current and former employees and our licensors’ current and former employees, including our senior management, were previously employed at universities or at other biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies, including some which may be competitors or potential competitors. Some of these employees, including members of our senior management, may have executed proprietary rights, non-disclosure and non-competition agreements, or similar agreements, in connection with such previous employment. Although we try to ensure that our employees do not use the proprietary information or know-how of others in their work for us, we may be subject to claims that we or these employees have used or disclosed intellectual property, including trade secrets or other proprietary information, of any such third party. Litigation may be necessary to defend against such claims. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may sustain damages or lose key personnel, valuable intellectual property rights or the personnel’s work product, which could hamper or prevent commercialization of our technology, which could materially affect our commercial development efforts. Such intellectual property rights could be awarded to a third party, and we could be required to obtain a license from such third party to commercialize our technology or products. Such a license may not be available on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management.

In addition, while we typically require our employees, consultants and contractors who may be involved in the development of intellectual property to execute agreements assigning such intellectual property to us, we may be unsuccessful in executing such an agreement with each party who in fact develops intellectual property that we regard as our own, which may result in claims by or against us related to the ownership of such

54

intellectual property. If we fail in prosecuting or defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights. Even if we are successful in prosecuting or defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to our senior management and scientific personnel.

We may become involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our patents or other intellectual property, which could be expensive, time consuming and unsuccessful.

Competitors may infringe our patents, trademarks, copyrights or other intellectual property. To counter infringement or unauthorized use, we may be required to file infringement claims, which can be expensive and time consuming and divert the time and attention of our management and scientific personnel. Any claims we assert against perceived infringers could provoke these parties to assert counterclaims against us alleging that we infringe their patents, in addition to counterclaims asserting that our patents are invalid or unenforceable, or both. In any patent infringement proceeding, there is a risk that a court will decide that a patent of ours is invalid or unenforceable, in whole or in part, and that we do not have the right to stop the other party from using the invention at issue. There is also a risk that, even if the validity of such patents is upheld, the court will construe the patent’s claims narrowly or decide that we do not have the right to stop the other party from using the invention at issue on the grounds that our patent claims do not cover the invention. An adverse outcome in a litigation or proceeding involving one or more of our patents could limit our ability to assert those patents against those parties or other competitors, and may curtail or preclude our ability to exclude third parties from making and selling similar or competitive products. Similarly, if we assert trademark infringement claims, a court may determine that the marks we have asserted are invalid or unenforceable, or that the party against whom we have asserted trademark infringement has superior rights to the trademarks in question. In this case, we could ultimately be forced to cease use of such trademarks.

Even if we establish infringement, the court may decide not to grant an injunction against further infringing activity and instead award only monetary damages, which may or may not be an adequate remedy. Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during litigation. There could also be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could adversely affect the price of shares of our common stock. Moreover, there can be no assurance that we will have sufficient financial or other resources to file and pursue such infringement claims, which typically last for years before they are concluded. Even if we ultimately prevail in such claims, the monetary cost of such litigation and the diversion of the attention of our management and scientific personnel could outweigh any benefit we receive as a result of the proceedings.

Additionally, for certain of our existing and future in-licensed patent rights, we may not have the right to bring suit for infringement and may have to rely on third parties to enforce these rights for us. If we cannot or choose not to take action against those we believe infringe our intellectual property rights, we may have difficulty competing in certain markets where such potential infringers conduct their business, and our commercialization efforts may suffer as a result.

If our trademarks and trade names are not adequately protected, then we may not be able to build name recognition in our trademarks of interest and our business may be adversely affected.

Our trademarks or trade names may be challenged, infringed, circumvented or declared generic or determined to be infringing on other marks. We rely on both registration and common law protection for our trademarks. We may not be able to protect our rights to these trademarks and trade names or may be forced to stop using these names, which we need for name recognition by potential partners or customers in our markets of interest. During trademark registration proceedings, we may receive rejections. Although we would be given an opportunity to respond to those rejections, we may be unable to overcome such rejections. In addition, in the

55

USPTO and in comparable agencies in many foreign jurisdictions, third parties are given an opportunity to oppose pending trademark applications and to seek to cancel registered trademarks. Opposition or cancellation proceedings may be filed against our trademarks, and our trademarks may not survive such proceedings. Moreover, any name we propose to use for our products in the United States must be approved by the FDA, regardless of whether we have registered it, or applied to register it, as a trademark. The FDA typically conducts a review of proposed product names, including an evaluation of potential for confusion with other product names. If the FDA objects to any of our proposed product names, we may be required to expend significant additional resources in an effort to identify a usable substitute name that would qualify under applicable trademark laws, not infringe the existing rights of third parties and be acceptable to the FDA. If we are unable to establish name recognition based on our trademarks and trade names, we may not be able to compete effectively and our business may be adversely affected.

Risks Related to Our Dependence on Third Parties

We rely on third parties to assist in conducting our clinical trials. If they do not perform satisfactorily, we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval or commercialize our product candidates, or such approval or commercialization may be delayed, and our business could be substantially harmed.

We do not independently conduct clinical trials of any of our product candidates. We have relied upon and plan to continue to rely on third parties, such as contract research organizations, clinical data management organizations, medical institutions and clinical investigators, to conduct these clinical trials and expect to rely on these third parties to conduct clinical trials of any other product candidate that we develop. Any of these third parties may terminate their engagements with us under certain circumstances. We may not be able to enter into alternative arrangements or do so on commercially reasonable terms. In addition, there is a natural transition period when a new CRO begins work. As a result, delays may occur, which could negatively impact our ability to meet our expected clinical development timelines and harm our business, financial condition and prospects.

Further, although our reliance on these third parties for clinical development activities limits our control over these activities, we remain responsible for ensuring that each of our trials is conducted in accordance with the applicable protocol, legal and regulatory requirements and scientific standards. For example, notwithstanding the obligations of a CRO for a trial of one of our product candidates, we remain responsible for ensuring that each of our clinical trials is conducted in accordance with the general investigational plan and protocols for the trial. Moreover, the FDA requires us to comply with requirements, commonly referred to as Good Clinical Practices, or GCPs, for conducting, recording and reporting the results of clinical trials to assure that data and reported results are credible and accurate and that the rights, integrity and confidentiality of trial participants are protected. The FDA enforces these GCPs through periodic inspections of trial sponsors, principal investigators, clinical trial sites and IRBs. If we or our third-party contractors fail to comply with applicable GCPs, the clinical data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and the FDA may require us to perform additional clinical trials before approving our product candidates, which would delay the regulatory approval process. We cannot be certain that, upon inspection, the FDA will determine that any of our clinical trials comply with GCPs. We are also required to register certain clinical trials and post the results of completed clinical trials on a government-sponsored database, ClinicalTrials.gov, within certain timeframes. Failure to do so can result in fines, adverse publicity and civil and criminal sanctions.

Furthermore, the third parties conducting clinical trials on our behalf are not our employees, and except for remedies available to us under our agreements with such contractors, we cannot control whether or not they devote sufficient time, skill and resources to our ongoing development programs. These contractors may also have relationships with other commercial entities, including our competitors, for whom they may also be conducting clinical trials or other drug development activities, which could impede their ability to devote appropriate time to our clinical programs. If these third parties, including clinical investigators, do not successfully carry out their contractual duties, meet expected deadlines or conduct our clinical trials in accordance with regulatory requirements or our stated protocols, we may not be able to obtain, or may be delayed

56

in obtaining, regulatory approvals for our product candidates. If that occurs, we will not be able to, or may be delayed in our efforts to, successfully commercialize our product candidates. In such an event, our financial results and the commercial prospects for any product candidates that we seek to develop could be harmed, our costs could increase and our ability to generate revenues could be delayed, impaired or foreclosed.

We also rely on other third parties to store and distribute drug supplies for our clinical trials. Any performance failure on the part of our distributors could delay clinical development or regulatory approval of our product candidates or commercialization of any resulting products, producing additional losses and depriving us of potential product revenue.

Our use of third parties to manufacture our product candidates and products which we are studying in combination with our product candidates may increase the risk that we will not have sufficient quantities of our product candidates, products, or necessary quantities of such materials on time or at an acceptable cost.

We do not own or operate manufacturing facilities for the production of clinical or commercial quantities of our product candidates, and we lack the resources and the capabilities to do so. As a result, we currently rely on third parties for the manufacture and supply of the active pharmaceutical ingredients, or API, in our product candidates. Our current strategy is to outsource all manufacturing of our product candidates to third parties.

We currently engage one third-party manufacturer to provide the active pharmaceutical ingredient, or API, and four other third-party manufacturers to provide services for the final drug product formulation of RTB101 that is being used in our clinical trials. Although we believe that there are several potential alternative manufacturers who could manufacture RTB101 and everolimus, we may incur added costs and delays in identifying and qualifying any such replacement. In addition, we typically order raw materials and services on a purchase order basis and do not enter into long-term dedicated capacity or minimum supply arrangements with any commercial manufacturer. There is no assurance that we will be able to timely secure needed supply arrangements on satisfactory terms, or at all. Our failure to secure these arrangements as needed could have a material adverse effect on our ability to complete the development of our product candidates or, to commercialize them, if approved. We may be unable to conclude agreements for commercial supply with third-party manufacturers, or may be unable to do so on acceptable terms. There may be difficulties in scaling up to commercial quantities and formulation of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, and the costs of manufacturing could be prohibitive.

Even if we are able to establish and maintain arrangements with third-party manufacturers, reliance on third-party manufacturers entails additional risks, including:

57

If we do not maintain our key manufacturing relationships, we may fail to find replacement manufacturers or develop our own manufacturing capabilities, which could delay or impair our ability to obtain regulatory approval for our products. If we do find replacement manufacturers, we may not be able to enter into agreements with them on terms and conditions favorable to us and there could be a substantial delay before new facilities could be qualified and registered with the FDA and other foreign regulatory authorities.

If any of our product candidates are approved by any regulatory agency, we intend to utilize arrangements with third-party contract manufacturers for the commercial production of those products. This process is difficult and time consuming and we may face competition for access to manufacturing facilities as there are a limited number of contract manufacturers operating under cGMPs that are capable of manufacturing our product candidates. Consequently, we may not be able to reach agreement with third-party manufacturers on satisfactory terms, which could delay our commercialization.

Our failure, or the failure of our third-party manufacturers, to comply with applicable regulations could result in sanctions being imposed on us, including clinical holds, fines, injunctions, civil penalties, delays, suspension or withdrawal of approvals, seizures or voluntary recalls of product candidates, operating restrictions and criminal prosecutions, any of which could significantly affect supplies of our product candidates. The facilities used by our contract manufacturers to manufacture our product candidates must be evaluated by the FDA pursuant to inspections that will be conducted after we submit our NDA to the FDA. We do not control the manufacturing process of, and are completely dependent on, our contract manufacturing partners for compliance with cGMPs. If our contract manufacturers cannot successfully manufacture material that conforms to our specifications and the strict regulatory requirements of the FDA or others, we may not be able to secure and/or maintain regulatory approval for our product manufactured at these facilities. In addition, we have no control over the ability of our contract manufacturers to maintain adequate quality control, quality assurance and qualified personnel. If the FDA finds deficiencies or a comparable foreign regulatory authority does not approve these facilities for the manufacture of our product candidates or if it withdraws any such approval in the future, we may need to find alternative manufacturing facilities, which would significantly impact our ability to develop, obtain regulatory approval for or market our product candidates, if approved. Contract manufacturers may face manufacturing or quality control problems causing drug substance production and shipment delays or a situation where the contractor may not be able to maintain compliance with the applicable cGMP requirements. Any failure to comply with cGMP requirements or other FDA, EMA and comparable foreign regulatory requirements could adversely affect our clinical research activities and our ability to develop our product candidates and market our products, if approved.

The FDA and other foreign regulatory authorities require manufacturers to register manufacturing facilities. The FDA and corresponding foreign regulators also inspect these facilities to confirm compliance with cGMPs. Contract manufacturers may face manufacturing or quality control problems causing drug substance production and shipment delays or a situation where the contractor may not be able to maintain compliance with the applicable cGMP requirements. Any failure to comply with cGMP requirements or other FDA, EMA and comparable foreign regulatory requirements could adversely affect our clinical research activities and our ability to develop our product candidates and market our products following approval.

If any third-party manufacturer of our product candidates is unable to increase the scale of its production of our product candidates, and/or increase the product yield of its manufacturing, then our costs to manufacture the product may increase and commercialization may be delayed.

In order to produce sufficient quantities to meet the demand for clinical trials and, if approved, subsequent commercialization of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or any other product candidates that we may develop, our third party manufacturer will be required to increase its production and

58

optimize its manufacturing processes while maintaining the quality of the product. The transition to larger scale production could prove difficult. In addition, if our third party manufacturer is not able to optimize its manufacturing process to increase the product yield for our product candidates, or if it is unable to produce increased amounts of our product candidates while maintaining the quality of the product, then we may not be able to meet the demands of clinical trials or market demands, which could decrease our ability to generate profits and have a material adverse impact on our business and results of operation.

We may need to maintain licenses for active ingredients from third parties to develop and commercialize some of our product candidates, which could increase our development costs and delay our ability to commercialize those product candidates.

Should we decide to use active pharmaceutical ingredients in any of our product candidates that are proprietary to one or more third parties, we would need to maintain licenses to those active ingredients from those third parties. If we are unable to gain or continue to access rights to these active ingredients prior to conducting preclinical toxicology studies intended to support clinical trials, we may need to develop alternate product candidates from these programs by either accessing or developing alternate active ingredients, resulting in increased development costs and delays in commercialization of these product candidates. If we are unable to gain or maintain continued access rights to the desired active ingredients on commercially reasonable terms or develop suitable alternate active ingredients, we may not be able to commercialize product candidates from these programs.

Use of third parties to conduct testing of our product candidates in tissues or animals may increase the risk that we will have unsuitable or invalidated data for regulatory submissions and approval.

We currently do not own or operate laboratory facilities in which to conduct preclinical testing of our product candidates in tissues or animals. Preclinical studies regulated by FDA, EMA and most other health authorities are governed by Good Laboratory Practices, or GLP. Additionally, studies involving animals may be subject to further regulation by institutional, private or government animal welfare authorities that may vary by territory. Studies involving human tissues may also be subject to institutional and government human subject privacy policies that may vary by territory. Third party vendors conducting tissue and/or animal studies on our behalf may be found to be in violation of one or more of these regulations or policies and may be subject to closure, censure or other penalties. In some cases, these penalties could materially impact the performance, availability, or validity of studies conducted on our behalf. Even in the absence of violations resulting in penalties, regulatory and other authorities may refuse to authorize the conduct or to accept the results of studies for regulatory or ethical reasons.

We enter into various contracts in the normal course of our business in which we indemnify the other party to the contract. In the event we have to perform under these indemnification provisions, it could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

In the normal course of business, we periodically enter into academic, commercial, service, collaboration, licensing, consulting and other agreements that contain indemnification provisions. With respect to our academic and other research agreements, we typically indemnify the institution and related parties from losses arising from claims relating to the products, processes or services made, used, sold or performed pursuant to the agreements for which we have secured licenses, and from claims arising from our exercise of rights under the agreement. With respect to our commercial agreements, we indemnify our vendors from any third-party product liability claims that could result from the production, use or consumption of the product, as well as for alleged infringements of any patent or other intellectual property right by a third party.

Should our obligation under an indemnification provision exceed applicable insurance coverage or if we were denied insurance coverage, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be adversely affected. Similarly, if we are relying on a collaborator to indemnify us and the collaborator is denied insurance

59

coverage or the indemnification obligation exceeds the applicable insurance coverage and does not have other assets available to indemnify us, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be adversely affected.

We may seek to establish collaborations and, if we are not able to establish them on commercially reasonable terms, we may have to alter our development and commercialization plans.

We may seek one or more collaborators for the development and commercialization of one or more of our product candidates. Likely collaborators may include large and mid-size pharmaceutical companies, regional and national pharmaceutical companies and biotechnology companies. In addition, if we are able to obtain regulatory approval for product candidates from foreign regulatory authorities, we may enter into collaborations with international biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies for the commercialization of such product candidates.

We face significant competition in seeking appropriate collaborators. Whether we reach a definitive agreement for a collaboration will depend, among other things, upon our assessment of the collaborator’s resources and expertise, the terms and conditions of the proposed collaboration and the proposed collaborator’s evaluation of a number of factors. Those factors may include the potential differentiation of our product candidate from competing product candidates, design or results of clinical trials, the likelihood of approval by the FDA, the EMA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities and the regulatory pathway for any such approval, the potential market for the product candidate, the costs and complexities of manufacturing and delivering the product to patients and the potential of competing products. The collaborator may also consider alternative product candidates or technologies for similar indications that may be available for collaboration and whether such a collaboration could be more attractive than the one with us for our product candidate. If we elect to increase our expenditures to fund development or commercialization activities on our own, we may need to obtain additional capital, which may not be available to us on acceptable terms or at all. If we do not have sufficient funds, we may not be able to further develop our product candidates or bring them to market and generate product revenue.

Collaborations are complex and time-consuming to negotiate and document. Further, there have been a significant number of recent business combinations among large pharmaceutical companies that have resulted in a reduced number of potential future collaborators. Any collaboration agreements that we enter into in the future may contain restrictions on our ability to enter into potential collaborations or to otherwise develop specified product candidates. We may not be able to negotiate collaborations on a timely basis, on acceptable terms, or at all. If we are unable to do so, we may have to curtail the development of the product candidate for which we are seeking to collaborate, reduce or delay its development program or one or more of our other development programs, delay its potential commercialization or reduce the scope of any sales or marketing activities, or increase our expenditures and undertake development or commercialization activities at our own expense.

If we enter into collaborations with third parties for the development and commercialization of our product candidates, our prospects with respect to those product candidates will depend in significant part on the success of those collaborations.

We may enter into collaborations for the development and commercialization of certain of our product candidates. If we enter into such collaborations, we will have limited control over the amount and timing of resources that our collaborators will dedicate to the development or commercialization of our product candidates. Our ability to generate revenues from these arrangements will depend on any future collaborators’ abilities to successfully perform the functions assigned to them in these arrangements. In addition, any future collaborators may have the right to abandon research or development projects and terminate applicable agreements, including funding obligations, prior to or upon the expiration of the agreed upon terms.

60

Collaborations involving our product candidates pose a number of risks, including the following:

Collaboration agreements may not lead to development or commercialization of product candidates in the most efficient manner or at all. If any future collaborator of ours is involved in a business combination, it could decide to delay, diminish or terminate the development or commercialization of any product candidate licensed to it by us.

We may have to alter our development and commercialization plans if we are not able to establish collaborations.

We will require additional funds to complete the development and potential commercialization of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus and other product candidates. For some of our product candidates, we may decide to collaborate with pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for the development and potential commercialization of those product candidates.

61

We face significant competition in seeking and obtaining appropriate collaborators. Whether we reach a definitive agreement for a collaboration will depend, among other things, upon our assessment of the collaborator’s resources and expertise, the terms and conditions of the proposed collaboration and the proposed collaborator’s evaluation of a number of factors. Those factors may include:

The collaborator may also consider alternative product candidates or technologies for similar indications that may be available for collaboration and whether such a collaboration could be more attractive than the one with us for our product candidate. We may also be restricted under future license agreements from entering into agreements on certain terms with potential collaborators. In addition, there have been a significant number of recent business combinations among large pharmaceutical companies that have resulted in a reduced number of potential future collaborators.

If we are unable to reach agreements with suitable collaborators on a timely basis, on acceptable terms, or at all, we may have to curtail the development of a product candidate, reduce or delay its development program or one or more of our other development programs, delay its potential commercialization or reduce the scope of any sales or marketing activities, or increase our expenditures and undertake development or commercialization activities at our own expense. If we elect to fund and undertake development or commercialization activities on our own, we may need to obtain additional expertise and additional capital, which may not be available to us on acceptable terms or at all. If we fail to enter into collaborations and do not have sufficient funds or expertise to undertake the necessary development and commercialization activities, we may not be able to further develop our product candidates or bring them to market and our business may be materially and adversely affected.

Risks Related to Employee Matters and Managing Growth

We only have a limited number of employees to manage and operate our business.

As of                     , we had          full- or part-time employees. Our focus on the development of RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, requires us to optimize cash utilization and to manage and operate our business in a highly efficient manner. We cannot assure you that we will be able to hire and/or retain adequate staffing levels to develop RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus, or run our operations and/or to accomplish all of the objectives that we otherwise would seek to accomplish.

62

Cyber-attacks or other failures in our telecommunications or information technology systems, or those of our collaborators, contract research organizations, third-party logistics providers, distributors or other contractors or consultants, could result in information theft, data corruption and significant disruption of our business operations.

We, our collaborators, our CROs, third-party logistics providers, distributors and other contractors and consultants utilize information technology, or IT, systems and networks to process, transmit and store electronic information in connection with our business activities. As use of digital technologies has increased, cyber incidents, including deliberate attacks and attempts to gain unauthorized access to computer systems and networks, have increased in frequency and sophistication. These threats pose a risk to the security of our, our collaborators’, our CROs’, third-party logistics providers’, distributors’ and other contractors’ and consultants’ systems and networks, and the confidentiality, availability and integrity of our data. There can be no assurance that we will be successful in preventing cyber-attacks or successfully mitigating their effects. Similarly, there can be no assurance that our collaborators, CROs, third-party logistics providers, distributors and other contractors and consultants will be successful in protecting our clinical and other data that is stored on their systems. Any cyber-attack or destruction or loss of data could have a material adverse effect on our business and prospects. For example, the loss of clinical trial data from completed or ongoing clinical trials for any of our product candidates could result in delays in our development and regulatory approval efforts and significantly increase our costs to recover or reproduce the data. In addition, we may suffer reputational harm or face litigation or adverse regulatory action as a result of cyber-attacks or other data security breaches and may incur significant additional expense to implement further data protection measures.

We depend heavily on our executive officers, principal consultants and others and the loss of their services would materially harm our business.

Our success depends, and will likely continue to depend, upon our ability to hire, retain the services of our current executive officers, principal consultants and others, including Chen Schor, our president and chief executive officer, and Joan Mannick, our chief medical officer. We have entered into employment agreements with Mr. Schor and Dr. Mannick, but they may terminate their employment with us at any time. Although we do not have any reason to believe that we will lose the services of Mr. Schor and Dr. Mannick in the foreseeable future, the loss of their services might impede the achievement of our research, development and commercialization objectives.

Our ability to compete in the biotechnology and pharmaceuticals industries depends upon our ability to attract and retain highly qualified managerial, scientific and medical personnel. Our industry has experienced a high rate of turnover of management personnel in recent years. Replacing executive officers or other key employees may be difficult and may take an extended period of time because of the limited number of individuals in our industry with the breadth of skills and experience required to develop, gain regulatory approval of and commercialize products successfully.

Competition to hire from this limited pool is intense, and we may be unable to hire, train, retain or motivate these additional key employees on acceptable terms given the competition among numerous pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for similar personnel. We also experience competition for the hiring of scientific and clinical personnel from universities and research institutions.

We rely on consultants and advisors, including scientific and clinical advisors, to assist us in formulating our research and development and commercialization strategy. Our consultants and advisors may be employed by other entities and may have commitments under consulting or advisory contracts with those entities that may limit their availability to us. If we are unable to continue to attract and retain highly qualified personnel, our ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates will be limited.

One of our shareholders, PureTech Health, currently provides us with strategic medical, clinical and scientific advice pursuant to a business services, personnel and information management agreement. In addition,

63

we currently share administrative resources and offices with PureTech Health, including legal, accounting and human resources support, computer and telecommunications systems and other office infrastructure pursuant to the agreement. While we intend to occupy our own office space and hire additional qualified personnel to provide certain of these functions internally in the future, we are currently dependent on PureTech Health for these services. If PureTech Health was unable or unwilling to continue to provide these shared resources, we may be unable to replace in a timely manner or on comparable terms the shared resources or other benefits that PureTech Health currently provides. Also, upon the termination of the shared resources provided under the services agreement, such services will be provided internally or by unaffiliated third parties, and we expect that in some instances, we will incur higher costs to obtain such services than we incurred under the terms of such agreement. If we are unable to transition the shared resources that PureTech Health provides to internal employees or unaffiliated third parties, or to do so in a cost effective and timely manner, we may not be able to operate our business effectively and our business and financial condition could be adversely affected.

Our employees, independent contractors, consultants, collaborators and contract research organizations may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including non-compliance with regulatory standards and requirements, which could cause significant liability for us and harm our reputation.

We are exposed to the risk that our employees, independent contractors, consultants, collaborators and contract research organizations may engage in fraudulent conduct or other illegal activity. Misconduct by those parties could include intentional, reckless and/or negligent conduct or disclosure of unauthorized activities to us that violates:

Activities subject to these laws also involve the improper use or misrepresentation of information obtained in the course of clinical trials, creating fraudulent data in our preclinical studies or clinical trials or illegal misappropriation of product materials, which could result in regulatory sanctions and serious harm to our reputation. It is not always possible to identify and deter misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to be in compliance with such laws, standards or regulations. Additionally, we are subject to the risk that a person or government could allege such fraud or other misconduct, even if none occurred. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business and results of operations, including the imposition of civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, monetary fines, possible exclusion from participation in Medicare, Medicaid and other federal healthcare programs, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits and future earnings, and curtailment of our operations, any of which could have a material adverse effect on our ability to operate our business and our results of operations.

We expect to expand our organization, and as a result, we may encounter difficulties in managing our growth, which could disrupt our operations.

We expect to experience significant growth in the number of our employees and the scope of our operations, particularly in the areas of regulatory affairs and sales, marketing and distribution, as well as to

64

support our public company operations. To manage these growth activities, we must continue to implement and improve our managerial, operational and financial systems, expand our facilities and continue to recruit and train additional qualified personnel. Our management may need to devote a significant amount of its attention to managing these growth activities. Moreover, our expected growth could require us to relocate to a different geographic area of the country. Due to our limited financial resources and the limited experience of our management team in managing a company with such anticipated growth, we may not be able to effectively manage the expansion or relocation of our operations, retain key employees, or identify, recruit and train additional qualified personnel. Our inability to manage the expansion or relocation of our operations effectively may result in weaknesses in our infrastructure, give rise to operational mistakes, loss of business opportunities, loss of employees and reduced productivity among remaining employees. Our expected growth could also require significant capital expenditures and may divert financial resources from other projects, such as the development of additional product candidates. If we are unable to effectively manage our expected growth, our expenses may increase more than expected, our ability to generate revenues could be reduced and we may not be able to implement our business strategy, including the successful commercialization of our product candidates.

Our current operations are concentrated primarily in a single location and any events affecting our headquarters may have material adverse consequences.

Our current operations are primarily located in our principal office in Boston, Massachusetts. Any unplanned event, such as flood, fire, explosion, earthquake, extreme weather condition, medical epidemics, power shortage, telecommunication failure or other natural or manmade accidents or incidents that result in us being unable to fully utilize the office may have a material adverse effect on our ability to operate our business, and have significant negative consequences on our financial and operating conditions. Loss of access to this office may result in increased costs, delays in the development of our product candidates or interruption of our business operations. As part of our risk management policy, we maintain insurance coverage at levels that we believe are appropriate for our business. However, in the event of an accident or incident at our office, our insurance coverage may not be sufficient to satisfy all of our damages and losses. If our office is unable to operate because of an accident or incident or for any other reason, even for a short period of time, any or all of our research and development programs may be harmed.

Prior to this offering, we operated as a private company and therefore, have no experience operating as a public company and complying with public company obligations. Complying with these requirements will increase our costs, require additional management resources and qualified accounting and financial personnel, and we may fail to meet all of these obligations.

We will face increased legal, accounting, administrative and other costs and expenses as a public company. Compliance with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, the Dodd-Frank Act of 2010 and the rules promulgated thereunder, as well as rules of the SEC and Nasdaq, for example, will result in significant initial cost to us as well as ongoing increases in our legal, audit and financial compliance costs, particularly after we are no longer an “emerging growth company.” The Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended, or the Exchange Act, requires, among other things, that we file certain periodic reports with respect to our business and financial condition. Our executive officers and other personnel need to devote a substantial amount of time to these compliance initiatives. Moreover, these rules and regulations may make it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and require us to incur substantial costs to maintain the same or similar coverage. We expect to incur significant expense and devote substantial management effort toward ensuring compliance with Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 once we lose our status as an “emerging growth company.” We currently do not have an internal audit group, and we will need to hire additional accounting and financial staff with appropriate public company experience and technical accounting knowledge, and it may be difficult to recruit and maintain such personnel. Implementing any appropriate changes to our internal controls may require specific compliance training for our directors, officers and employees, entail substantial costs to modify our existing accounting systems, and take a significant period of time to complete. Such changes may not, however, be effective in maintaining the adequacy of our internal controls, and any

65

failure to maintain that adequacy, or consequent inability to produce accurate financial statements or other reports on a timely basis, could increase our operating costs and could materially impair our ability to operate our business.

If we fail to maintain an effective system of internal control over financial reporting, we may not be able to accurately report our financial results or prevent fraud. As a result, stockholders could lose confidence in our financial and other public reporting, which would harm our business and the trading price of our common stock.

Effective internal controls over financial reporting are necessary for us to provide reliable financial reports and, together with adequate disclosure controls and procedures, are designed to prevent fraud. Any failure to implement required new or improved controls, or difficulties encountered in their implementation could cause us to fail to meet our reporting obligations. In addition, any testing by us conducted in connection with Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or any subsequent testing by our independent registered public accounting firm, may reveal deficiencies in our internal controls over financial reporting that are deemed to be material weaknesses or that may require prospective or retroactive changes to our financial statements or identify other areas for further attention or improvement. Inferior internal controls could also cause investors to lose confidence in our reported financial information, which could have a negative effect on the trading price of our stock.

We will be required to disclose changes made in our internal controls and procedures on a quarterly basis and our management will be required to assess the effectiveness of these controls annually. However, for as long as we are an “emerging growth company” under the JOBS Act, our independent registered public accounting firm will not be required to attest to the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting pursuant to Section 404. We could be an “emerging growth company” for up to five years. An independent assessment of the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting could detect problems that our management’s assessment might not. Undetected material weaknesses in our internal controls over financial reporting could lead to financial statement restatements and require us to incur the expense of remediation.

Our disclosure controls and procedures may not prevent or detect all errors or acts of fraud.

Upon completion of this offering, we will become subject to certain reporting requirements of the Exchange Act. Our disclosure controls and procedures are designed to reasonably assure that information required to be disclosed by us in reports we file or submit under the Exchange Act is accumulated and communicated to management, recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the time periods specified in the rules and forms of the SEC. We believe that any disclosure controls and procedures or internal controls and procedures, no matter how well conceived and operated, can provide only reasonable, not absolute, assurance that the objectives of the control system are met. These inherent limitations include the realities that judgments in decision-making can be faulty, and that breakdowns can occur because of simple error or mistake. Additionally, controls can be circumvented by the individual acts of some persons, by collusion of two or more people or by an unauthorized override of the controls. Accordingly, because of the inherent limitations in our control system, misstatements or insufficient disclosures due to error or fraud may occur and not be detected.

We have conducted and expect to continue to conduct our operations in jurisdictions outside of the United States, and such foreign operations subject us to additional risks.

A portion of our operations, including our clinical research and development efforts, have been undertaken outside of the United States, and we expect to continue to conduct a portion of our business in foreign countries. For example, we are conducting our ongoing Phase 2b clinical trial across two hemispheres. In addition, we may utilize third party contract organizations, some of which may be located in foreign jurisdictions, for the conduct of our clinical trials, the manufacturing of our product candidates and the

66

commercialization of our product candidates, if approved. Such operations subject us to additional risks related to international business operations, including:

These and other risks may materially adversely affect our ability to conduct our business in international markets.

We may engage in acquisitions that could disrupt our business, cause dilution to our stockholders or reduce our financial resources.

In the future, we may enter into transactions to acquire other businesses, products or technologies. If we do identify suitable candidates, we may not be able to make such acquisitions on favorable terms, or at all. Any acquisitions we make may not strengthen our competitive position, and these transactions may be viewed negatively by customers or investors. We may decide to incur debt in connection with an acquisition or issue our common stock or other equity securities to the stockholders of the acquired company, which would reduce the percentage ownership of our existing stockholders. We could incur losses resulting from undiscovered liabilities of the acquired business that are not covered by the indemnification we may obtain from the seller. In addition, we may not be able to successfully integrate the acquired personnel, technologies and operations into our existing business in an effective, timely and nondisruptive manner. Acquisitions may also divert management attention from day-to-day responsibilities, increase our expenses and reduce our cash available for operations and other uses. We cannot predict the number, timing or size of future acquisitions or the effect that any such transactions might have on our operating results.

Risks Related to Our Common Stock and this Offering

An active trading market for our common stock may not develop or be sustainable. If an active trading market does not develop, investors may not be able to resell their shares at or above the initial public offering price and our ability to raise capital in the future may be impaired.

Prior to this offering, there has been no public market for our common stock. The initial public offering price for our common stock will be determined through negotiations with the underwriters. This price may not

67

reflect the price at which investors in the market will be willing to buy and sell our shares following this offering. Although we intend to list our common stock on The Nasdaq Global Market, an active trading market for our shares may never develop or, if developed, be maintained following this offering. If an active market for our common stock does not develop or is not maintained, it may be difficult for you to sell shares you purchase in this offering without depressing the market price for the shares or at all. An inactive trading market may also impair our ability to raise capital to continue to fund operations by selling shares and may impair our ability to acquire other companies or technologies by using our shares as consideration.

If you purchase shares of common stock in this offering, you will suffer immediate dilution in the net tangible book value of your investment.

The initial public offering price of our common stock is substantially higher than the net tangible book value per share of our common stock. Therefore, if you purchase shares of our common stock in this offering, you will pay a price per share that substantially exceeds our net tangible book value per share after this offering. Based on the assumed initial public offering price of $         per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, you will experience immediate dilution of $         per share, representing the difference between our pro forma net tangible book value per share after giving effect to this offering and the assumed initial public offering price. Purchasers of common stock in this offering will have contributed approximately     % of the aggregate price paid by all purchasers of our capital stock and will own approximately     % of our common stock outstanding after this offering, excluding any shares of our common stock that they may have acquired prior to this offering. Furthermore, if the underwriters exercise their over-allotment option or our previously issued options and other rights to acquire common stock at prices below the assumed initial public offering price are exercised, you will experience further dilution. For additional information on the dilution that you will experience immediately after this offering, see the section titled “Dilution.”

The trading price of our common stock is likely to be highly volatile, which could result in substantial losses for purchasers of our common stock in this offering. Securities class action or other litigation involving our company or members of our management team could also substantially harm our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our stock price is likely to be highly volatile. The stock market in general and the market for smaller pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies in particular have experienced extreme volatility that has often been unrelated to the operating performance of particular companies. As a result of this volatility, you may not be able to sell your common stock at or above the initial public offering price and you may lose some or all of your investment. The market price for our common stock may be influenced by many factors, including:

68

In the past, securities class action litigation has often been brought against a company following a decline in the market price of its securities. This risk is especially relevant for biopharmaceutical companies, which have experienced significant stock price volatility in recent years.

We have broad discretion in the use of the net proceeds from this offering and may invest or spend the proceeds in ways with which you do not agree and in ways that may not yield a return on your investment.

Although we currently intend to use the net proceeds from this offering in the manner described in the section titled “Use of Proceeds” in this prospectus, our management will have broad discretion in the application of the net proceeds from this offering and could spend the proceeds in ways that do not improve our results of operations or enhance the value of our common stock. You will not have the opportunity to influence our decisions on how to use the net proceeds from this offering. The failure by our management to apply these funds effectively could result in financial losses that could harm our business, cause the price of our common stock to decline and delay the development of our product candidates. Pending their use, we may invest the net proceeds from this offering in a manner that does not produce income or that loses value.

We are an “emerging growth company,” and the reduced disclosure requirements applicable to emerging growth companies may make our common stock less attractive to investors.

We are an emerging growth company, and, for as long as we continue to be an emerging growth company, we may choose to take advantage of exemptions from various reporting requirements applicable to other public companies but not to “emerging growth companies.” We could remain an “emerging growth company” for up to five years, or until the earliest of (1) the last day of the first fiscal year in which our annual gross revenue exceeds $1.07 billion, (2) the date that we become a “large accelerated filer” as defined in

69

Rule 12b-2 under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, which would occur if the market value of our common stock that is held by non-affiliates exceeds $700.0 million as of the last business day of our most recently completed second fiscal quarter or (3) the date on which we have issued more than $1.0 billion in non-convertible debt during the preceding three-year period. So long as we remain an “emerging growth company,” we expect to avail ourselves of the exemption from the requirement that our independent registered public accounting firm attest to the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting under Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or Section 404. When our independent registered public accounting firm is required to undertake an assessment of our internal control over financial reporting, the cost of our compliance with Section 404 will correspondingly increase. Moreover, if we are not able to comply with the requirements of Section 404 applicable to us in a timely manner, or if we or our independent registered public accounting firm identifies deficiencies in our internal control over financial reporting that are deemed to be material weaknesses, the market price of our stock could decline and we could be subject to sanctions or investigations by the SEC or other regulatory authorities, which would require additional financial and management resources.

We will incur increased costs as a result of operating as a public company, and our management will be required to devote substantial time to new compliance initiatives and corporate governance practices.

As a public company, and particularly after we are no longer an “emerging growth company,” we will incur significant legal, accounting and other expenses that we did not incur as a private company, including costs associated with public company reporting requirements. We also anticipate that we will incur costs associated with relatively recently adopted corporate governance requirements, including requirements of the Securities and Exchange Commission, or SEC, and The Nasdaq Global Market. We expect these rules and regulations to increase our legal and financial compliance costs and to make some activities more time-consuming and costly. We also expect that these rules and regulations may make it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance and we may be required to accept reduced policy limits and coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain the same or similar coverage. As a result, it may be more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified individuals to serve on our board of directors or as executive officers.

We are currently evaluating and monitoring developments with respect to these rules, and we cannot predict or estimate the amount of additional costs we may incur or the timing of such costs. These rules and regulations are often subject to varying interpretations, in many cases due to their lack of specificity, and, as a result, their application in practice may evolve over time as new guidance is provided by regulatory and governing bodies. This could result in continuing uncertainty regarding compliance matters and higher costs necessitated by ongoing revisions to disclosure and governance practices.

Pursuant to Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, or Section 404, we will be required to furnish a report by our management on our internal control over financial reporting beginning with our second filing of an Annual Report on Form 10-K with the Securities and Exchange Commission, or the SEC, after we become a public company. However, while we remain an emerging growth company, we will not be required to include an attestation report on internal control over financial reporting issued by our independent registered public accounting firm. To achieve compliance with Section 404 within the prescribed period, we will be engaged in a process to document and evaluate our internal control over financial reporting, which is both costly and challenging. In this regard, we will need to continue to dedicate internal resources, potentially engage outside consultants and adopt a detailed work plan to assess and document the adequacy of internal control over financial reporting, continue steps to improve control processes as appropriate, validate through testing that controls are functioning as documented and implement a continuous reporting and improvement process for internal control over financial reporting. Despite our efforts, there is a risk that we will not be able to conclude, within the prescribed timeframe or at all, that our internal control over financial reporting is effective as required by Section 404. If we identify one or more material weaknesses, it could result in an adverse reaction in the financial markets due to a loss of confidence in the reliability of our financial statements.

70

A significant portion of our total outstanding shares is restricted from immediate resale but may be sold into the market in the near future, which could cause the market price of our common stock to decline significantly, even if our business is doing well.

Sales of a substantial number of shares of our common stock in the public market could occur at any time. These sales, or the perception in the market that the holders of a large number of shares of common stock intend to sell shares, could reduce the market price of our common stock. Following this offering, we will have                  shares of common stock outstanding based on the                  shares of our common stock outstanding as of                  and after giving effect to the conversion of all outstanding shares of our preferred stock into 20,320,667 shares of our common stock upon the closing of this offering. Of these shares, the                  shares sold by us in this offering may be resold in the public market immediately, unless purchased by our affiliates. The remaining                  shares are currently restricted under securities laws or as a result of lock-up or other agreements, but will be able to be sold after this offering as described in the “Shares Eligible for Future Sale” section of this prospectus. The representatives of the underwriters may release these stockholders from their lock-up agreements with the underwriters at any time and without notice, which would allow for earlier sales of shares in the public market.

Moreover, after this offering, holders of an aggregate of                  shares of our common stock will have rights, subject to conditions, to require us to file registration statements covering their shares or to include their shares in registration statements that we may file for ourselves or other stockholders. We also plan to register all shares of common stock that we may issue under our equity compensation plans. Once we register these shares, they can be freely sold in the public market upon issuance and once vested, subject to volume limitations applicable to affiliates and the lock-up agreements. If these additional shares are sold, or if it is perceived that they will be sold, in the public market, the trading price of our common stock could decline.

We do not anticipate paying any cash dividends on our capital stock in the foreseeable future. Accordingly, stockholders must rely on capital appreciation, if any, for any return on their investment.

We have never declared nor paid cash dividends on our capital stock. We currently plan to retain all of our future earnings, if any, to finance the operation, development and growth of our business. In addition, the terms of any future debt or credit agreements may preclude us from paying dividends. As a result, capital appreciation, if any, of our common stock will be your sole source of gain for the foreseeable future.

Concentration of ownership of our common stock among our existing executive officers, directors and principal stockholders may prevent new investors from influencing significant corporate decisions.

Based upon shares outstanding as of                 , and after giving effect to the conversion of all outstanding shares of preferred stock into shares of our common stock, upon the closing of this offering, our executive officers and directors, combined with our stockholders who owned more than 5% of our outstanding common stock before this offering and their affiliates, will, in the aggregate, beneficially own shares representing approximately     % of our common stock. As a result, if these stockholders were to choose to act together, they would be able to control all matters submitted to our stockholders for approval, as well as our management and affairs. For example, these persons, if they choose to act together, would control the election of directors and approval of any merger, consolidation or sale of all or substantially all of our assets. This concentration of ownership control may:

71

Some of these persons or entities may have interests different than yours. For example, because many of these stockholders purchased their shares at prices substantially below the price at which shares are being sold in this offering and have held their shares for a longer period, they may be more interested in selling our company to an acquirer than other investors or they may want us to pursue strategies that deviate from the interests of other stockholders.

Provisions in our corporate charter documents and under Delaware law may prevent or frustrate attempts by our stockholders to change our management or hinder efforts to acquire a controlling interest in us.

Provisions in our corporate charter and our bylaws that will become effective upon the closing of this offering may discourage, delay or prevent a merger, acquisition or other change in control of us that stockholders may consider favorable, including transactions in which you might otherwise receive a premium for your shares. These provisions could also limit the price that investors might be willing to pay in the future for shares of our common stock, thereby depressing the market price of our common stock. In addition, because our board of directors is responsible for appointing the members of our management team, these provisions may frustrate or prevent any attempts by our stockholders to replace or remove our current management by making it more difficult for stockholders to replace members of our board of directors. Among other things, these provisions:

Moreover, because we are incorporated in Delaware, we are governed by the provisions of Section 203 of the General Corporation Law of the State of Delaware, which prohibits a person who owns in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock from merging or combining with us for a period of three years after the date of the transaction in which the person acquired in excess of 15% of our outstanding voting stock, unless the merger or combination is approved in a prescribed manner. This could discourage, delay or prevent someone from acquiring us or merging with us, whether or not it is desired by, or beneficial to, our stockholders. This could also have the effect of discouraging others from making tender offers for our common stock, including transactions that may be in your best interests. These provisions may also prevent changes in our management or limit the price that investors are willing to pay for our stock.

72

Our restated certificate of incorporation will provide that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware will be the sole and exclusive forum for most legal actions between us and our stockholders, which could limit our stockholders’ ability to obtain a favorable judicial forum for disputes with us or our directors, officers, employees or agents.

Our restated certificate of incorporation, which will become effective upon the closing of this offering, specifies that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware will be the sole and exclusive forum for most legal actions involving claims brought against us by stockholders. Any person or entity purchasing or otherwise acquiring any interest in shares of our capital stock shall be deemed to have notice of and to have consented to the provisions of our restated certificate of incorporation described above.

We believe this provision benefits us by providing increased consistency in the application of Delaware law by chancellors particularly experienced in resolving corporate disputes, efficient administration of cases on a more expedited schedule relative to other forums and protection against the burdens of multi-forum litigation. However, the provision may have the effect of discouraging lawsuits against our directors, officers, employees and agents as it may limit any stockholder’s ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum that such stockholder finds favorable for disputes with us or our directors, officers, employees or agents. The enforceability of similar choice of forum provisions in other companies’ certificates of incorporation has been challenged in legal proceedings, and it is possible that, in connection with any applicable action brought against us, a court could find the choice of forum provisions contained in our restated certificate of incorporation to be inapplicable or unenforceable in such action. If a court were to find the choice of forum provision contained in our restated certificate of incorporation to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving such action in other jurisdictions, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, our share price and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our common stock will be influenced by the research and reports that industry or securities analysts publish about us or our business. We do not currently have and may never obtain research coverage by securities and industry analysts. If no or few securities or industry analysts commence coverage of us, or one or more of the analysts who cover us issues an adverse opinion about our company, our stock price would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts ceases research coverage of us or fails to regularly publish reports on us, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which in turn could cause our stock price or trading volume to decline.

73

SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS AND INDUSTRY DATA

This prospectus contains forward-looking statements that involve substantial risks and uncertainties. All statements, other than statements of historical facts, contained in this prospectus, including statements regarding our strategy, future operations, future financial position, future revenue, projected costs, prospects, plans and objectives of management and expected market growth are forward-looking statements. The words “anticipate,” “believe,” “continue,” “could,” “estimate,” “expect,” “intend,” “may,” “plan,” “potential,” “predict,” “project,” “should,” “target,” “would” and similar expressions are intended to identify forward-looking statements, although not all forward-looking statements contain these identifying words.

These forward-looking statements include, among other things, statements about:

We may not actually achieve the plans, intentions or expectations disclosed in our forward-looking statements, and you should not place undue reliance on our forward-looking statements. Actual results or events could differ materially from the plans, intentions and expectations disclosed in the forward-looking statements we make. We have included important factors in the cautionary statements included in this prospectus, particularly in the “Risk Factors” section, that could cause actual results or events to differ materially from the forward-looking statements that we make. Our forward-looking statements do not reflect the potential impact of any future acquisitions, mergers, dispositions, collaborations, joint ventures or investments that we may make or enter into.

74

You should read this prospectus and the documents that we have filed as exhibits to the registration statement of which this prospectus is a part completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from what we expect. We do not assume any obligation to update any forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise, except as required by law.

This prospectus includes statistical and other industry and market data that we obtained from industry publications and research, surveys and studies conducted by third parties. Industry publications and third-party research, surveys and studies generally indicate that their information has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable, although they do not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of such information. We are responsible for all of the disclosure contained in this prospectus, and we believe these industry publications and third-party research, surveys and studies are reliable.

75

USE OF PROCEEDS

We estimate that the net proceeds from our issuance and sale of                  shares of our common stock in this offering will be approximately $        million, assuming an initial public offering price of $        per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. If the underwriters exercise in full their option to purchase additional shares, we estimate that the net proceeds from this offering will be approximately $        million.

A $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $        per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease our net proceeds from this offering by approximately $        million, assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions. An increase or decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease our net proceeds from this offering by approximately $        million, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price per share and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions.

We currently estimate that we will use the net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash and cash equivalents:

This expected use of the net proceeds from this offering and our existing cash represents our intentions based upon our current plans and business conditions, which could change in the future as our plans and business conditions evolve. For example, we may use a portion of the net proceeds for the acquisition of businesses or technologies to continue to build our pipeline, our research and development capabilities and our intellectual property position, although we currently have no agreements, commitments or understandings with respect to any such transaction. The amounts and timing of our actual expenditures may vary significantly depending on numerous factors, including the progress of our development and commercialization efforts, the status of and results from clinical trials, any collaborations that we may enter into with third parties for our product candidates and any unforeseen cash needs. Moreover, our estimates of the costs to fund our trials are based on the current designs of the trials. If we were to modify the design of any of these trials, for instance, to increase the number of patients in the trials, our costs to fund the trials could increase. As a result, our management will retain broad discretion over the allocation of the net proceeds from this offering.

Based on our current plans, we believe that our existing cash and cash equivalents, together with the net proceeds from this offering, will be sufficient to enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements at least through              . We have based this estimate on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could use our available capital resources sooner than we currently expect. We do not have any committed external source of funds.

Pending our use of the net proceeds from this offering, we intend to invest the net proceeds in a variety of capital preservation investments, including short-term, investment-grade, interest-bearing instruments and U.S. government securities.

76

DIVIDEND POLICY

We have never declared nor paid cash dividends on our common stock. We currently intend to retain all of our future earnings, if any, to finance the growth and development of our business. We do not intend to pay cash dividends in respect of our common stock in the foreseeable future.

77

CAPITALIZATION

The following table sets forth our cash and capitalization as of September 30, 2017:

Our capitalization following the closing of this offering will depend on the actual initial public offering price and other terms of this offering determined at pricing. You should read this table together with our financial statements and the related notes appearing at the end of this prospectus and the sections of this prospectus titled “Selected Financial Data” and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”

78

A $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $        per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease the pro forma as adjusted amount of each of cash, additional paid-in capital, total stockholders’ equity and total capitalization by $        million, assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions. An increase or decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease the pro forma as adjusted amount of each of cash, additional paid-in capital, total stockholders’ equity and total capitalization by $        million, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price per share and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions.

The table above does not include:

79

DILUTION

If you invest in our common stock in this offering, your ownership interest will be diluted immediately to the extent of the difference between the public offering price per share of our common stock and the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of our common stock after this offering.

Our historical net tangible book value (deficit) as of September 30, 2017 was $(9.0) million, or $(1.25) per share of our common stock. Our historical net tangible book value (deficit) is the amount of our total tangible assets less our total liabilities and preferred stock, which is not included within stockholders’ equity (deficit). Historical net tangible book value (deficit) per share represents our historical net tangible book value (deficit) divided by the 7,245,900 shares of our common stock outstanding as of September 30, 2017.

Our pro forma net tangible book value as of September 30, 2017 was $57.0 million, or $2.07 per share of our common stock. Pro forma net tangible book value represents the amount of our total tangible assets less our total liabilities, after giving effect to (i) the sale and issuance of 7,763,975 shares of our Series A preferred stock in October 2017 for aggregate gross proceeds of $15.0 million, (ii) the sale and issuance of 4,792,716 shares of our Series B preferred stock in November 2017 for aggregate net proceeds of $39.9 million and (iii) the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our preferred stock into an aggregate of 20,320,667 shares of our common stock upon the closing of this offering. Pro forma net tangible book value per share represents pro forma net tangible book value divided by the total number of shares outstanding as of September 30, 2017, after giving effect to the foregoing adjustments and the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our preferred stock into common stock upon the closing of this offering.

After giving further effect to our issuance and sale of                  shares of our common stock in this offering at an assumed initial public offering price of $        per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value as of September 30, 2017 would have been $        million, or $        per share. This represents an immediate increase in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of $        to existing stockholders and immediate dilution of $        in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering. Dilution per share to new investors is determined by subtracting pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering from the assumed initial public offering price per share paid by new investors. The following table illustrates this dilution on a per share basis:

A $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $        per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value by $        million, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering by $        and dilution per share to new investors purchasing shares in this offering by $        , assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions. An increase of

80

1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering by $        and decrease the dilution per share to new investors participating in this offering by $        , assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions. A decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would decrease the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering by $        and increase the dilution per share to new investors participating in this offering by $        , assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions.

If the underwriters exercise their option to purchase additional shares in full, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering would be $        per share, representing an immediate increase in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of $        to existing stockholders and immediate dilution in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of $        to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering, assuming an initial public offering price of $        per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. If any shares are issued upon exercise of outstanding options, you will experience further dilution.

The following table summarizes, as of September 30, 2017, on the pro forma as adjusted basis described above, the differences between the number of shares of common stock purchased from us, the total consideration paid to us and the average price per share paid by existing stockholders and by new investors purchasing shares of common stock in this offering. The calculation below is based on an assumed initial public offering price of $        per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, before deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us:

A $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $        per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease the total consideration paid by new investors by $        million and, in the case of an increase, would increase the percentage of total consideration paid by new investors by      percentage points and, in the case of a decrease, would decrease the percentage of total consideration paid by new investors by      percentage points, assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same. An increase or decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease the total consideration paid by new investors by $        million and, in the case of an increase, would increase the percentage of total consideration paid by new investors by      percentage points and, in the case of a decrease, would decrease the percentage of total consideration paid by new investors by      percentage points, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price.

The table above assumes no exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares in this offering. If the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares is exercised in full, the number of shares of our common stock held by existing stockholders would be reduced to             % of the total number of shares of our common stock outstanding after this offering, and the number of shares of common stock held by new investors participating in the offering would be increased to             % of the total number of shares of our common stock outstanding after this offering.

The number of shares purchased from us by existing stockholders is based on 7,245,900 shares of our common stock outstanding as of September 30, 2017, and gives effect to (i) the sale and issuance of 7,763,975

81

shares of our Series A preferred stock in October 2017, (ii) the sale and issuance of 4,792,716 shares of Series B preferred stock in November 2017 and (iii) the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our preferred stock into an aggregate of 20,320,667 shares of common stock upon the closing of this offering, and excludes:

82

SELECTED FINANCIAL DATA

The following tables summarize our financial data as of the dates and for the periods indicated. The selected statements of operations data for the period from July 5, 2016 (inception) through December 31, 2016 and the nine months ended September 30, 2017 and the balance sheet data as of December 31, 2016 and September 30, 2017 have been derived from our audited financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus. The statement of operations data for the period from July 5, 2016 (inception) through September 30, 2016 have been derived from our unaudited financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus and have been prepared on the same basis as the audited financial statements. In the opinion of management, the unaudited data reflects all adjustments, consisting only of normal, recurring adjustments, necessary for a fair statement of the financial information in those statements. Our historical results from any prior period are not necessarily indicative of results to be expected in any future period, and our interim period results are not necessarily indicative of results to be expected for a full year or any other interim period. The selected financial data below should be read in conjunction with the section entitled “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and our financial statements and related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus.

83

84

MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations together with the section entitled “Selected Financial Data” and our financial statements and related notes included elsewhere in this prospectus. This discussion and other parts of this prospectus contain forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties, such as our plans, objectives, expectations, intentions and beliefs. Our actual results could differ materially from those discussed in these forward-looking statements. Factors that could cause or contribute to such differences include, but are not limited to, those identified below and those discussed in the section entitled “Risk Factors” included elsewhere in this prospectus.

Overview

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company focused on the development and commercialization of novel therapeutics for the treatment of aging-related diseases. Our lead program has demonstrated in several clinical trials, including a randomized, placebo-controlled trial, the potential to treat multiple diseases of aging for which there are no approved therapies. The decline in immune function that occurs during aging, or immunosenescence, increases susceptibility to a variety of diseases, including respiratory tract infections, or RTIs, that significantly contribute to morbidity and mortality in the elderly. Our approach focuses on the mechanistic target of rapamycin, or mTOR, pathway, an evolutionarily conserved pathway that regulates aging, and specifically on selective inhibition of the target of rapamycin complex 1, or TORC1. Our initial focus is on the development of RTB101, an orally administered, small molecule, potent TORC1 inhibitor, alone and in combination with other mTOR inhibitors such as everolimus—as a first-in-class immunotherapy program designed to improve immune function and thereby reduce the incidence of RTIs in the elderly regardless of the causative pathogen. We licensed the worldwide rights to our TORC1 program, including RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus or other mTOR inhibitors, from Novartis International Pharmaceutical Ltd., or Novartis, in March 2017. We are evaluating RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus in a Phase 2b clinical trial for the reduction of RTI incidence in the elderly and expect to report top-line data from this trial in the second half of 2018.

Since our inception in July 2016, we have devoted substantially all of our resources to: identifying, acquiring, and developing our product candidate portfolio; organizing and staffing our company; raising capital; developing manufacturing capabilities; conducting clinical trials; and providing general and administrative support for these operations. To date, we have primarily financed our operations through the issuance and sale of our redeemable convertible preferred stock. From our inception through September 30, 2017, we received gross proceeds of $10.0 million from the issuance and sale of our redeemable convertible preferred stock. In October 2017, we received an additional $15.0 million in gross proceeds from the issuance and sale of our redeemable convertible Series A preferred stock. In November 2017, we received an additional $40.0 million in gross proceeds from the issuance and sale of our redeemable convertible Series B preferred stock.

We have never generated revenue and have incurred significant net losses since inception. Our net losses were $1,000, $1,000 and $10.7 million, for the period from July 5, 2016 (inception) through December 31, 2016, the period from July 5, 2016 (inception) to September 30, 2016 and for the nine months ended September 30, 2017, respectively. As of September 30, 2017, we had an accumulated deficit of $10.7 million. Our net losses may fluctuate significantly from quarter to quarter and year to year. We expect to incur significant expenses and increasing operating losses for the foreseeable future. We anticipate that our expenses will increase substantially as we:

85

We believe that our available funds subsequent to this offering will be sufficient to fund our operations into             . We do not expect to generate revenue from product sales unless and until we successfully complete development and obtain regulatory approval for a product candidate or enter into collaborative agreements with third parties, which we expect will take a number of years and the outcome of which is subject to significant uncertainty. Additionally, we currently use third parties such as contract research organizations, or CROs, and contract manufacturing organizations, or CMOs, to carry out our preclinical and clinical development activities and we do not yet have a sales organization. If we obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates, we expect to incur significant commercialization expenses related to product sales, marketing, manufacturing and distribution. To fund our current and future operating plans, we will need additional capital, which we may obtain through one or more equity offerings, debt financings or other third-party funding, including potential strategic alliances and licensing or collaboration arrangements. We may, however, be unable to raise additional funds or enter into such other arrangements when needed on favorable terms or at all. Our failure to raise capital or enter into such other arrangements as and when needed would have a negative impact on our financial condition and our ability to develop our current product candidates, or any additional product candidates, if developed. The amount and timing of our future funding requirements will depend on many factors, including the pace and results of our preclinical and clinical development efforts. We cannot assure you that we will ever be profitable or generate positive cash flow from operating activities.

Novartis License Agreement

On March 23, 2017, we entered into a license agreement with Novartis, pursuant to which we were granted an exclusive, field-restricted, worldwide license to certain intellectual property rights owned or controlled by Novartis, including patents, patent applications, proprietary information, know-how and other intellectual property, to develop, commercialize and sell one or more therapeutic products comprising RTB101 or RTB101 and everolimus in a fixed dose combination. Under the license agreement, we have been licensed a patent portfolio of ten patent families directed to composition of matter of RTB101 and its salts, formulations of everolimus and methods of using RTB101 and everolimus to enhance the immune response among others. The exclusive field under the license agreement is for the treatment, prevention and diagnosis of diseases and other conditions in all indications in humans and animals.

As initial consideration for the license, we issued Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, or NIBR, 2,587,992 shares of our Series A Preferred Stock.

The agreement may be terminated by either party upon a material breach of obligation by the other party that is not cured with 60 days after written notice. We may terminate the agreement in its entirety or on a product-by-product or country-by-country basis with or without cause with 60 days’ prior written notice.

86

Novartis may terminate the portion of the agreement related to everolimus if we fail to use commercially reasonable efforts to research, develop and commercialize a product utilizing everolimus for a period of three years. Novartis may terminate the license agreement upon our bankruptcy, insolvency, dissolution or winding up.

As additional consideration for the license, we are required to pay up to an aggregate of $4.3 million upon the satisfaction of clinical milestones, up to an aggregate of $24 million upon the satisfaction of regulatory milestones for the first indication approved, and up to an aggregate of $18 million upon the satisfaction of regulatory milestones for the second indication approved. In addition, we are required to pay up to an aggregate of $125 million upon the satisfaction of commercial milestones, based on the amount of annual net sales. We are also required to pay tiered royalties ranging from a mid-single digit percentage to a low-teen digit percentage on annual net sales of products. These royalty obligations last on a product-by-product and country-by-country basis until the latest of (i) the expiration of the last valid claim of a Novartis patent covering a subject product, (ii) the expiration of any regulatory exclusivity for the subject product in a country, or (iii) the 10^th anniversary of the first commercial sale in the country, and are subject to a reduction after the expiration of the last valid claim of a Novartis patent or the introduction of a generic equivalent of a product in a country. In addition, if we sublicense the rights under the license agreement, we are required to pay a certain percentage of the sublicense revenue to Novartis. Novartis will no longer be entitled to sublicense revenue following the last visit of the 400^th subject in any human clinical trial conducted by us or a sublicensee of ours, which we expect to occur by the end of our ongoing Phase 2b clinical trial.

Milestone payments to Novartis will be recorded as research and development expenses in our statements of operations once achievement of each associated milestone has occurred or the achievement is considered probable. In May 2017, we initiated a Phase 2b clinical trial for a first indication, triggering the first milestone payment under the agreement. Accordingly, we paid the related $0.3 million payment in May 2017. As of September 30, 2017, none of the remaining development milestones, regulatory milestones, sales milestones, or royalties had been reached or were probable of achievement. We also enter into contracts in the normal course of business with various third parties for preclinical research studies, clinical trials, testing and other services. These contracts generally provide for termination upon notice, and therefore we believe that our noncancelable obligations under these agreements are not material.

Financial Operations Overview

Revenue

We have not generated any revenue from the sale of our products, and we do not expect to generate any revenue unless and until we obtain regulatory approval of and commercialize RTB101, alone or in combination with everolimus.

Research and Development Expenses

Research and development expenses consist primarily of costs incurred for the development of our product candidates, which include:

87

We have not provided program costs since inception because historically we have not tracked or recorded our research and development expenses on a program-by-program basis. We use our personnel and infrastructure resources across multiple research and development programs directed toward developing our TORC1 program and for identifying and developing product candidates. We manage certain activities such as contract research and manufacturing of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus and our discovery programs through our third-party vendors, and do not track the costs of these activities on a program-by-program basis.

We expense all research and development costs in the periods in which they are incurred. Costs for certain development activities are recognized based on an evaluation of the progress to completion of specific tasks using information and data provided to us by our vendors and third-party service providers.

We expect our research and development expenses to increase substantially for the foreseeable future as we continue to invest in research and development activities related to developing our product candidates, including investments in manufacturing, as our programs advance into later stages of development and we continue to conduct clinical trials. The process of conducting the necessary clinical research to obtain regulatory approval is costly and time-consuming, and the successful development of our product candidates is highly uncertain. As a result, we are unable to determine the duration and completion costs of our research and development projects or when and to what extent we will generate revenue from the commercialization and sale of any of our product candidates.

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with product development, we cannot determine with certainty the duration and completion costs of the current or future preclinical studies and clinical trials or if, when, or to what extent we will generate revenues from the commercialization and sale of our product candidates. We may never succeed in achieving regulatory approval for our product candidates. The duration, costs and timing of preclinical studies and clinical trials and development of our product candidates will depend on a variety of factors, including:

88

A change in the outcome of any of these factors could mean a significant change in the costs and timing associated with the development of our current and future preclinical and clinical product candidates. For example, if the FDA, or another regulatory authority were to require us to conduct clinical trials beyond those that we currently anticipate will be required for the completion of clinical development, or if we experience significant delays in execution of or enrollment in any of our preclinical studies or clinical trials, we could be required to expend significant additional financial resources and time on the completion of preclinical and clinical development. We expect our research and development expenses to increase for the foreseeable future as we continue the development of product candidates.

General and Administrative Expenses

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of personnel costs, costs related to maintenance and filing of intellectual property, depreciation expense and other expenses for outside professional services, including legal, human resources, audit and accounting services. Personnel costs consist of salaries, benefits and stock-based compensation expense. We expect our general and administrative expenses to increase for the foreseeable future due to anticipated increases in headcount to advance our product candidates and as a result of operating as a public company, including expenses related to compliance with the rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission, The Nasdaq Global Market, additional insurance expenses, investor relations activities and other administration and professional services.

Other Income, Net

Other income, net, consists of non-cash changes in fair value of the tranche rights liability associated with the redeemable convertible preferred stock.

Critical Accounting Polices and Estimates

Our management’s discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations is based on our financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with United States generally accepted accounting principles, or U.S. GAAP. The preparation of these financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements, as well as the expenses incurred during the reporting periods. Our estimates are based on our historical experience and on various other factors that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying value of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions. We believe that the accounting policies discussed below are critical to understanding our historical and future performance, as these policies relate to the more significant areas involving management’s judgments and estimates.

Accrued Research and Development Costs

We accrue for estimated costs of research and development activities conducted by third-party service providers, which include the conduct of preclinical studies and clinical trials, and contract manufacturing activities. We record the estimated costs of research and development activities based upon the estimated amount of services provided, and include these costs in accrued liabilities in our balance sheets and within research and development expense in our statements of operations. These costs are a significant component of our research and development expenses. We accrue for these costs based on factors such as estimates of the work completed and in accordance with agreements established with our third-party service providers. We make judgments and estimates in determining the accrued liabilities balance in each reporting period.

Research and Development Costs

Research and development costs are expensed as incurred and consist of personnel costs, lab supplies and other costs, as well as fees paid to third parties to conduct research and development activities on our behalf.

89

Amounts incurred in connection with license agreements are also included in research and development expenses. We record payments made to outside vendors for services performed or goods being delivered for use in research and development activities as either prepaid expenses or accrued expenses, depending on the timing of when services are performed or goods are delivered.

Determination of Fair Value of Common and Preferred Shares and Tranche Rights Liabilities

As there has been no public market for our equity securities to date, the estimated fair value of our common and preferred shares has been determined by the board of directors as of the grant date, with input from management, considering our most recently available third-party valuations of common shares and preferred shares and the board of directors’ assessment of additional objective and subjective factors that it believed were relevant and which may have changed from the date of the most recent valuation through the date of the grant. These third party valuations were performed in accordance with the guidance outlined in the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants’ Accounting and Valuation Guide, Valuation of Privately-Held-Company Equity Securities Issued as Compensation, or the Practice Aid. Our common and preferred share valuations were prepared using either an option-pricing method, or OPM, or a probability-weighted expected return method, or PWERM, which uses a combination of market approaches and an income approach to estimate our enterprise value. The OPM treats common securities and preferred securities as call options on the total equity value of a company, with exercise prices based on the value thresholds at which the allocation among the various holders of a company’s securities changes. Under this method, the common and preferred shares have value only if the funds available for distribution to stockholders are expected to exceed the value of the preferred security liquidation preference at the time of the liquidity event, such as a strategic sale or a merger. The PWERM is a scenario-based methodology that estimates the fair value of common and preferred shares based upon an analysis of future values for the enterprise, assuming various outcomes. The common and preferred share values are based on the probability-weighted present value of expected future investment returns considering each of the possible outcomes available as well as the rights of each class of common and preferred securities. The future value of the common and preferred shares under each outcome is discounted back to the valuation date at an appropriate risk-adjusted discount rate and probability weighted to arrive at an indication of value for the common and preferred shares. The estimated fair value of the tranche liability was determined using the difference between the total purchase price of our Series A Preferred Stock and the total fair value of the Series A Preferred Stock using a risk-adjusted forward contract model.

Stock-Based Compensation Expense

We recognize equity-based compensation expense for awards of equity instruments to employees and non-employees based on the grant date fair value of those awards in accordance with the Financial Accounting Standards Board, or FASB, Accounting Standards Codification, or ASC, Topic 718, Stock Compensation, or ASC 718. ASC 718 requires all equity-based compensation awards to employees and non-employee directors, including grants of restricted shares and stock options, to be recognized as expense in the Statements of Operations based on their grant date fair values. We estimate the fair value of stock options using the Black-Scholes option pricing model. We use the value of our common stock to determine the fair value of restricted shares.

We account for restricted stock and common stock options issued to nonemployees under FASB ASC Topic 505-50, Equity-Based Payments to Non-Employees, or ASC 505-50. As such, the value of such options is periodically remeasured and income or expense is recognized over their vesting terms. Compensation cost related to awards with service-based vesting schedules is recognized using the straight-line method. We determine the fair value of the restricted stock and common stock granted to nonemployees as either the fair value of the consideration received or the fair value of the equity instruments issued.

The Black-Scholes option pricing model requires the input of certain subjective assumptions, including (i) the expected volatility, (ii) the expected term of the award, (iii) the risk-free interest rate and (iv) the expected

90

dividend yield. Due to the lack of a public market for the trading of our common stock and a lack of company-specific historical and implied volatility data, we have based our estimate of expected volatility on the historical volatility of a group of similar companies that are publicly traded. The historical volatility is calculated based on a period of time commensurate with the expected term assumption. The group of representative companies has characteristics similar to us, including stage of product development and focus on the life science industry. We use the simplified method, which is the average of the final vesting tranche date and the contractual term, to calculate the expected term for options granted to employees as we do not have sufficient historical exercise data to provide a reasonable basis upon which to estimate the expected term. For options granted to nonemployees, we utilize the contractual term of the arrangement as the basis for the expected term assumption. The risk-free interest rate is based on a treasury instrument whose term is consistent with the expected term of the stock options. We use an assumed dividend yield of zero as we have never paid dividends and have no current plans to pay any dividends on our common stock.

There were no stock options granted during the period from July 5, 2016 (inception) to December 31, 2016. The following table presents the assumptions used to estimate the fair value of options granted during the nine months ended September 30, 2017:

For the period from July 5, 2016 (inception) through December 31, 2016, the nine months ended September 30, 2017, and the period from July 5, 2016 (inception) through September 30, 2016, stock-based compensation expense was $0, $0.3 million, and $0, respectively. As of September 30, 2017, we had $1.0 million of total unrecognized stock-based compensation expense, which we expect to recognize over a weighted-average period of 2.84 years.

The following table presents the grant dates of common shares, stock options, and awards that we granted from July 5, 2016 (inception) through September 30, 2017 along with the corresponding purchase or exercise price for each grant and our estimate of the fair value per share of our common stock on each grant date, which we utilized to calculate stock-based compensation expense:

91

Determination of the Fair Value of Common Stock on Grant Dates

Historically, for all periods prior to this offering, the fair values of the shares of common stock underlying our share-based awards were estimated on each grant date by our board of directors. The restricted common shares were granted to non-employees and subsequently were marked to market at each reporting date. On April 4, 2017, the non-employees became employees of our company and the fair value of the remaining unvested shares was fixed at $0.62 per share. In order to determine the fair value of our common stock our board of directors considered, among other things, contemporaneous valuations of our common stock prepared by an independent third-party valuation specialist in accordance with the guidance provide by the Practice Aid.

Given the absence of a public trading market for our common stock, our board of directors exercised their judgment and considered a number of objective and subjective factors to determine the best estimate of the fair value of our common stock, including our stage of development; progress of our research and development efforts; the rights, preferences and privileges of our preferred stock relative to those of our common stock; equity market conditions affecting comparable public companies; the lack of marketability of our common stock; and valuations obtained from issuance of our preferred stock to unrelated parties.

We performed common stock valuations, with the assistance of an independent third-party valuation specialist, as of March 23, 2017 and September 8, 2017, which resulted in valuations of our common stock of $0.62 and $0.78, respectively. In conducting the valuations, the independent third-party valuation specialist considered all objective and subjective factors that it believed to be relevant for each valuation conducted in accordance with the Practice Aid, including our best estimate of our business condition, prospects and operating performance at each valuation date. Other significant factors included:

The dates of our contemporaneous valuations have not always coincided with the dates of our stock option grants. In determining the exercise prices of the stock options set forth in the table above, our board of directors considered, among other things, the most recent valuation of our common stock and their assessment of additional objective and subjective factors that were relevant as of the grant dates. The additional factors

92

considered when determining whether any changes in the fair value of our common stock had occurred between the most recent valuation and the grant dates included our stage of research and development, our operating and financial performance and current business conditions.

The estimates of fair value of our common stock are highly complex and subjective. There are significant judgments and estimates inherent in the determination of the fair value of our common stock. These judgments and estimates include assumptions regarding our future operating performance, the time to completing an IPO or other liquidity event, the related valuations associated with these events, and the determinations of the appropriate valuation methods at each valuation date. The assumptions underlying these valuations represent management’s best estimates, which involve inherent uncertainties and the application of management judgment. If we had made different assumptions, our stock-based compensation expense, net loss and net loss per share applicable to common stockholders could have been materially different.

For valuations after the completion of this offering, our board of directors will determine the fair value of each share of underlying common stock based on the closing price of our common stock as reported on the date of grant.

Determination of Estimated Offering Price

In September 2017, we selected underwriters for this offering. The midpoint of the range of the initial public offering price listed on the cover page of this prospectus as determined by us and the underwriters was $         per share. In comparison, our estimate of the fair value of our common stock was $0.78 per share as of the September 8, 2017 valuation. We note that, as typical in initial public offerings, the range of the initial public offering price listed on the cover page of this prospectus was not derived using a formal determination of fair value, but was determined based upon discussions between us and the underwriters. Among the factors that were considered in setting this range were our prospects and the recent market prices of, and the demand for, publicly traded common stock of comparable companies.

We believe that the difference between the fair value of our common stock as of              and the midpoint of the range of the initial public offering price listed on the cover page of this prospectus is the result of these factors as well as the facts that we have continued to advance our lead product candidate and our research and development efforts. In addition, the range of the initial public offering price listed on the cover page of this prospectus necessarily assumes that the initial public offering has occurred, a public market for our common stock has been created and our convertible preferred stock has converted into common stock in connection with the initial public offering. The range of the initial public offering price listed on the cover page of this prospectus therefore excludes any discount for lack of marketability of our common stock and any consideration of the preferences of our convertible preferred stock, which we factored into the September 8, 2017 contemporaneous valuation.

93

Results of Operations

Comparison of the periods from July 5, 2016 (Inception) to December 31, 2016, the Nine Months Ended September 30, 2017, and the period from July 5, 2016 (Inception) to September 30, 2016

Research and Development

Research and development expenses were $0 for the periods from July 5, 2016 (inception) through December 31, 2016 and from July 5, 2016 (inception) through September 30, 2016, as our primary operations did not commence until March 23, 2017, when we acquired our license to develop, make, use, and sell products incorporating RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus. Research and development expenses increased to $10.0 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2017, and were primarily attributable to $3.9 million of costs associated with our license agreement, including the license of the intellectual property in exchange for Series A preferred stock, $1.0 million of costs related to contract research and supplies, $4.0 million of costs related to clinical trials, including the ongoing Phase 2b clinical trial, $0.5 million of costs related to external consulting incurred to supplement our research and development personnel, and $0.6 million of personnel costs.

General and Administrative

General and administrative expenses were $1,000 for the periods from July 5, 2016 (inception) through December 31, 2016 and from July 5, 2016 (inception) through September 30, 2016, and consisted entirely of registration and filing fees related to our incorporation. General and administrative expenses increased to $1.3 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2017, and were primarily attributable to $0.5 million of personnel, and $0.8 million of professional services fees, including costs related to intellectual property, legal and filing costs, accounting costs, and external consulting costs incurred to supplement our personnel.

Other Income, Net

Other income, net was $0 for the periods from July 5, 2016 (inception) through December 31, 2016 and from July 5, 2016 (inception) through September 30, 2016. Other income, net was $0.6 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2017, and entirely consisted of the change in fair value of our tranche liability related to our redeemable convertible preferred stock.

Liquidity, Capital Resources and Plan of Operations

Since inception through September 30, 2017, our operations have been financed solely by net proceeds of $10.0 million from the issuance and sale of shares of our redeemable convertible preferred stock. As of September 30, 2017, we had $4.0 million in cash and an accumulated deficit of $10.7 million. In October 2017, we received an additional $15.0 million in gross proceeds from the issuance and sale of our redeemable

94

convertible Series A preferred stock, or the Series A preferred stock, at the final closing of our Series A financing, as well as $40.0 million in gross proceeds from the issuance and sale of our redeemable convertible Series B preferred stock, or the Series B preferred stock.

Our primary use of cash has been to fund operating expenses, which consist of research and development and general and administrative expenditures. Cash used to fund operating expenses is impacted by the timing of when we pay these expenses, as reflected in the change in our outstanding accounts payable and accrued expenses.

Based upon our current operating plan, we believe that the net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements through             . We have based this estimate on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could utilize our available capital resources sooner than we currently expect. We will continue to require additional financing to advance our current product candidate through clinical development, to develop, acquire or in-license other potential product candidates and to fund operations for the foreseeable future. We will continue to seek funds through equity or debt financings, collaborative or other arrangements, or through other sources of financing. Adequate additional funding may not be available to us on acceptable terms, or at all. Any failure to raise capital as and when needed could have a negative impact on our financial condition and on our ability to pursue our business plans and strategies.

Further, our operating plans may change, and we may need additional funds to meet operational needs and capital requirements for clinical trials and other research and development activities. We currently have no credit facility or committed sources of capital. Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with the development and commercialization of our product candidates, we are unable to estimate the amounts of increased capital outlays and operating expenditures associated with our current and anticipated product development programs.

If we need to raise additional capital to fund our operations, funding may not be available to us on acceptable terms, or at all. If we are unable to obtain adequate financing when needed, we may have to delay, reduce the scope of or suspend one or more of our clinical trials, research and development programs or commercialization efforts. We may seek to raise any necessary additional capital through a combination of public or private equity offerings, debt financings, and collaborations or licensing arrangements. If we do raise additional capital through public or private equity offerings, the ownership interest of our existing stockholders will be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect our stockholders’ rights. If we raise additional capital through debt financing, we may be subject to covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures or declaring dividends. If additional funding is required, there can be no assurance that additional funds will be available to us on acceptable terms on a timely basis, if at all. If we are unable to raise capital, we will need to curtail planned activities to reduce costs. Doing so will likely have an unfavorable effect on our ability to execute our business plans.

The following table summarizes our cash flows for the periods indicated:

95

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

No cash was used in operating activities for the periods from July 5, 2016 (inception) through December 31, 2016 and from July 5, 2016 (inception) through September 30, 2016. Cash used in operating activities for the nine months ended September 30, 2017 was $6.0 million, consisting of a net loss of $10.7 million adjusted for noncash items primarily including stock-based compensation expense of $0.3 million and expense related to the acquisition of intellectual property of $3.2 million partially offset by gains resulting from the change in fair value of the tranche liability of $0.6 million. The change in our net operating assets and liabilities were due primarily to an increase in accounts payable of $1.1 million as a result of payment timing and an increase in accrued liabilities of $1.0 million primarily due to increased clinical activities, which were partially offset by an increase in prepaid expenses and other current assets of $0.2 million due to prepayments for our research and development activities.

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

No cash was used in investing activities for the periods from July 5, 2016 (inception) through December 31, 2016 and from July 5, 2016 (inception) through September 30, 2016. Cash used in investing activities for the nine months ended September 30, 2017 was $39,000 and consisted of the purchases of property and equipment.

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

No cash was provided by financing activities for the periods from July 5, 2016 (inception) through December 31, 2016 and from July 5, 2016 (inception) through September 30, 2016. Cash provided by financing activities for the nine months ended September 30, 2017 was $10.0 million from the issuance of redeemable convertible preferred stock.

Contractual Obligations and Other Commitments

The following table summarizes our outstanding contractual obligations as of payment due date by period at September 30, 2017.

In March 2017, we entered into a license Agreement with Novartis. See “—Overview—Novartis License Agreement.” Amounts owed under this license agreement are not included in the table above as they were considered a contingent payment as of September 30, 2017.

Net Operating Loss Carryforwards.

As of September 30, 2017, we had federal and state net operating loss carryforwards of $7.5 million and $7.4 million, respectively, which begin to expire in various amounts in 2036. As of September 30, 2017, we also had federal research and development tax credit carryforwards of $0.1 million, which begin to expire in 2037. These net operating loss and tax credit carryforwards could expire unused and be unavailable to offset future income tax liabilities. In addition, in general, under Sections 382 and 383 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, or the Code, a corporation that undergoes an “ownership change” is subject to limitations on its ability to utilize its pre-change net operating losses or tax credits, or NOLs or credits, to offset future taxable income or taxes. For these purposes, an ownership change generally occurs where the aggregate stock ownership of one or more stockholders or groups of stockholders who own at least 5% of a corporation’s stock increases its ownership by more than 50 percentage points over its lowest ownership percentage within a specified testing

96

period. Our existing NOLs or credits may be subject to limitations arising from previous ownership changes, and if we undergo an ownership change in connection with or after this offering, our ability to utilize NOLs or credits could be further limited by Sections 382 and 383 of the Code. In addition, future changes in our stock ownership, many of which are outside of our control, could result in an ownership change under Sections 382 and 383 of the Code. Our NOLs or credits may also be impaired under state law. Accordingly, we may not be able to utilize a material portion of our NOLs or credits. If we determine that an ownership change has occurred and our ability to use our historical NOLs or credits is materially limited, it would harm our future operating results by effectively increasing our future tax obligations. We have not performed an ownership change analysis.

Furthermore, our ability to utilize our NOLs or credits is conditioned upon our attaining profitability and generating U. S. federal and state taxable income. As described above under “Risk Factors—Risks Related to our Financial Position and Need for Additional Capital,” we have incurred significant net losses since our inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future; and therefore, we do not know whether or when we will generate the U.S. federal or state taxable income necessary to utilize our NOL or credit carryforwards that are subject to limitation by Sections 382 and 383 of the Code.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

We have not entered into any off-balance sheet arrangements and do not have any holdings in variable interest entities.

Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk

We are exposed to market risks in the ordinary course of our business. We had no cash equivalents, investments or outstanding debt as of December 31, 2016 and September 30, 2017 and, as such, minimal exposure to market risk. At December 31, 2016 and September 30, 2017, we had cash in an operating account of $0 and $4.0 million, respectively.

JOBS Act Accounting Election

We are an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012, or the JOBS Act. Under the JOBS Act, emerging growth companies can delay adopting new or revised accounting standards issued subsequent to the enactment of the JOBS Act until such time as those standards apply to private companies. We are considering whether to “opt out” of this provision and thereby comply with new or revised accounting standards as required when they are adopted. If we do decide to “opt out,” this decision to “opt out” of the extended transition period under the JOBS Act is irrevocable.

We are in the process of evaluating the benefits of relying on other exemptions and reduced reporting requirements under the JOBS Act. Subject to certain conditions, as an emerging growth company, we may rely on certain of these exemptions, including without limitation, providing an auditor’s attestation report on our system of internal controls over financial reporting pursuant to Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. We would cease to be an emerging growth company upon the earliest of: (1) the last day of the fiscal year ending after the fifth anniversary of our initial public offering; (2) the last day of the fiscal year in which we have more than $1.07 billion in annual revenue; (3) the date we qualify as a “large accelerated filer,” with at least $700.0 million of equity securities held by non-affiliates; or (4) the issuance, in any three-year period, by our company of more than $1.0 billion in non-convertible debt securities held by non-affiliates.

Recently Issued and Adopted Accounting Pronouncements

In August 2014, the FASB issued ASU 2014-15, Disclosure of Uncertainties about an Entity’s Ability to Continue as a Going Concern, or ASU 2014-15. ASU 2014-15 requires management to evaluate relevant conditions, events, and certain management plans that are known or reasonably knowable that, when considered

97

in the aggregate, raise substantial doubt about the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern within one year after the date that the financial statements are issued, for both annual and interim periods. ASU 2014-15 also requires certain disclosures around management’s plans and evaluation, as well as the plans, if any, that are intended to mitigate those conditions or events that will alleviate the substantial doubt. ASU 2014-15 is effective for fiscal years ending after December 15, 2016. We adopted this guidance on July 5, 2016 (inception).

In March 2016, the FASB issued ASU No. 2016-09, Compensation—Stock Compensation (Topic 718), or ASU 2016-09. The guidance changes how companies account for certain aspects of equity-based payments to employees. Entities will be required to recognize income tax effects of awards in the income statement when the awards vest or are settled. The guidance also allows an employer to repurchase more of an employee’s shares than it can under current guidance for tax withholding purposes providing for withholding at the employee’s maximum rate as opposed to the minimum rate without triggering liability accounting and to make a policy election to account for forfeitures as they occur. The updated guidance is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2017. Early adoption is permitted. We adopted this guidance on July 5, 2016 (inception) and made the policy election to account for forfeitures as they occur. No awards have been forfeited as of September 30, 2017.

In November 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-18, Statement of Cash Flows, or ASU 2016-18, which requires that amounts generally described as restricted cash and restricted cash equivalents should be included with cash and cash equivalents when reconciling the beginning-of-period and end-of-period total amounts shown on the statement of cash flows. ASU 2016-18 is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2018 and should be applied using a retrospective transition method to each period presented. Early adoption is permitted. We do not expect the impact of ASU 2016-18 to be material to our financial statements.

In May 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-09, Compensation—Stock Compensation (Topic 718): Scope of Modification Accounting, or ASU 2017-09. ASC 2017-09 provides guidance about which changes to the terms or conditions of a share-based payment award require an entity to apply modification accounting in Topic 718. The guidance is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2017, with early adoption permitted, including adoption in any interim period for which financial statements have not yet been issued. We are currently evaluating the potential effects of adopting the provisions of ASU 2017-09.

In July 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-11, Accounting for Certain Financial Instruments with Down Round Features, or ASU 2017-11, which updates the guidance related to the classification analysis of certain equity-linked financial instruments (or embedded features) with down round features. Under ASU 2017-11, a down round feature no longer precludes equity classification when assessing whether the instrument is indexed to an entity’s own stock. As a result, a freestanding equity-linked financial instrument (or embedded conversion option) no longer would be accounted for as a derivative liability at fair value as a result of the existence of a down round feature. For freestanding equity classified financial instruments, the amendments require entities that present earnings per share (EPS) in accordance with Topic 260 to recognize the effect of the down round feature when it is triggered. That effect is treated as a dividend and as a reduction of income available to common shareholders in basic EPS. ASU 2017-11 is effective for public entities for all annual and interim periods beginning after December 15, 2019. Early adoption is permitted. We are currently evaluating the impact that the adoption of ASU 2017-11 will have on our financial statements.

98

BUSINESS

Overview

We are a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company focused on the development and commercialization of novel therapeutics for the treatment of aging-related diseases. Our lead program has demonstrated in several clinical trials, including a randomized, placebo-controlled trial, the potential to treat multiple diseases of aging for which there are no approved therapies. The decline in immune function that occurs during aging, or immunosenescence, increases susceptibility to a variety of diseases, including respiratory tract infections, or RTIs, that significantly contribute to morbidity and mortality in the elderly. Our approach focuses on the mechanistic target of rapamycin, or mTOR, pathway, an evolutionarily conserved pathway that regulates aging, and specifically on selective inhibition of the target of rapamycin complex 1, or TORC1. Our initial focus is on the development of RTB101, an orally administered, small molecule, potent TORC1 inhibitor, alone and in combination with other mTOR inhibitors such as everolimus—as a first-in-class immunotherapy program designed to improve immune function and thereby reduce the incidence of RTIs in the elderly regardless of the causative pathogen. We licensed the worldwide rights to our TORC1 program, including RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus or other mTOR inhibitors, from Novartis International Pharmaceutical Ltd., or Novartis, in March 2017.

Our TORC1 immunotherapy approach is supported by a randomized, placebo-controlled Phase 2a clinical trial in 264 elderly subjects that provided statistically significant and clinically meaningful results. This trial demonstrated that treatment with RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus can enhance the ability of the aging immune system to fight infectious pathogens and consequently reduce the incidence of all infections, including RTIs in elderly subjects. Six weeks of treatment with RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus met a prespecified endpoint of reducing the incidence of infections by 33% (p=0.008) and 38% (p=0.001), respectively, during a period of one year following initiation of therapy. We are evaluating RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus in a Phase 2b clinical trial for the reduction in the incidence of RTIs in the elderly and expect to report top-line data from this trial in the second half of 2018. We expect market exclusivity for RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus until at least 2031 in the United States 2032 in major European markets, and 2030 in Japan, and additional pending patent applications may prolong the exclusivity of these product candidates up to 2036.

Recent scientific findings, including those published in the scientific journals Cell, Nature and Science, suggest that aging and aging-related conditions, such as immunosenescence, are attributable not only to random cellular wear and tear, but also to specific intra-cellular signaling pathways, including the mTOR pathway. mTOR is a protein kinase that signals via two multiprotein complexes, known as TORC1 and TORC2. TORC1 inhibition has been observed to prolong lifespan, enhance immune function, ameliorate heart failure, enhance memory and mobility, decrease adiposity and delay the onset of aging-related diseases in multiple animal studies. Specifically with respect to enhanced immune function, TORC1 inhibition was observed in preclinical studies to rejuvenate blood, or hematopoietic, stem cell function, increase infection-fighting white blood cell production and enhance antibody-mediated, or adaptive, immunity. On the other hand, TORC2 inhibition has been observed to decrease lifespan in preclinical studies and cause unwanted side effects of hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia in certain animals and humans. Therefore, based on these observations and data from the Phase 2a clinical trial, we believe our TORC1 program is well-suited to improve immune function and counteract immunosenescence in the elderly.

The reduced ability of elderly patients to effectively detect and fight infections is most commonly manifested in their susceptibility to RTIs and the negative effects such infections have on their overall health. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, RTIs are the fifth leading cause of death in people age 85 and over and the seventh leading cause of death in people age 65 and over, and result in high healthcare burdens and costs for the elderly population and the healthcare system. The majority of RTIs are caused by viruses for which there are no approved therapies. Despite this, antibiotics, which are ineffective against viruses, are often prescribed

99

indiscriminately to treat RTIs, which may cause side effects related to antibiotic use and contribute to the growing global problem of antibiotic resistance. As the elderly represent the fastest growing population in all regions of the world, we believe there is significant unmet medical need for innovative therapeutic options for reducing the incidence of RTIs by enhancing the function of the aging immune system.

We believe our approach to addressing RTIs in the elderly possesses several clinical and commercial advantages. Our TORC1 program offers an immunotherapy approach that has the potential to address a broad range of viral, and bacterial, pathogens. Statistically significant and clinically meaningful reductions in RTI incidence were observed in the Phase 2a clinical trial that evaluated RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus. We believe the risk-to-benefit ratio of our program is well-suited to the elderly due to the following observations: our oral product candidates were well-tolerated in elderly subjects and were associated with no study drug-related serious adverse events in the Phase 2a clinical trial, and the doses being investigated in our ongoing Phase 2b clinical trial are 60 to 240 times lower than maximum tolerated doses established in prior clinical trials for other indications. Based on communications including those during a high-level policy meeting with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, to date, we believe a reduction in the incidence of RTIs has the potential to be a clinically relevant endpoint. Subject to receiving positive results from our ongoing Phase 2b clinical trial with respect to reduction in RTI incidence, we plan to conduct a Phase 3 pivotal program and to seek regulatory approval for commercialization of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus in the United States, Europe and Japan. In some markets, we may collaborate with third parties for the development and commercialization of our product candidates.

We were founded by Chen Schor, who serves as our chief executive officer, Joan Mannick, M.D., who serves as our chief medical officer, and PureTech Health, an advanced clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company. Dr. Mannick led the TORC1 clinical program at Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, or NIBR, prior to our in-licensing of the program. Our management team includes veterans in drug development and discovery, with executive experience in leading global pharmaceutical companies. We are supported by investors that include both private equity venture capital funds and public healthcare investment funds. Our investors include OrbiMed Advisors, Fidelity Management & Research Company, Rock Springs Capital, Quan Capital and Nest Bio.

Our Strategy

Our goal is to be a leading biopharmaceutical company focused on treating aging-related diseases. We strive to maintain a leadership position in the TORC1 inhibitor class of pharmaceutical products. The key elements of our strategy to achieve this goal include:

100

Our Product Pipeline

The following table summarizes key information about our product candidates.

We also have a follow-on TORC1 inhibitor program at discovery stage.

101

Aging and its Regulation by the mTOR Pathway

Advances in the scientific understanding of aging have until recently been limited, despite high growth in the elderly population

The elderly are the fastest growing population around the globe. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the population age 65 and older in the United States is expected to double by 2050 compared to 2012 estimates. According to global census data, there are nearly 150 million people age 65 and older, and approximately 20 million people age 85 years and older in the United States, the major European countries and Japan. Despite age being the major risk factor for multiple chronic diseases, we believe few therapies are being developed to target the aging immune system, and none have been approved.

mTOR is an evolutionarily conserved pathway that regulates aging

mTOR is a serine/threonine protein kinase that regulates the process of aging and aging-related diseases and conditions. Inhibition of the mTOR pathway has been observed to prolong lifespan in multiple animals. These data support the potential for drugs that target the mTOR pathway to have therapeutic benefits for aging and aging-related conditions in humans.

In preclinical studies, the mTOR pathway has been observed to be hyperactivated in some cell types, including hematopoietic stem cells, or HSCs, at an advanced age. It was observed that suppressing mTOR activity in these cell types to levels found at younger ages may enhance cell function, including their ability to generate white blood cells. Furthermore, preclinical studies found that mTOR activity stimulates protein synthesis and cell growth, but inhibits protective processes such as autophagy in which damaged proteins and organelles are broken down and recycled. Therefore, these studies suggest that increased mTOR activity is beneficial during years of growth and reproduction but may be harmful during post-reproductive years when cells accumulate damage and require protective mechanisms such as autophagy to prevent and repair damage.

102

mTOR signals via two multiprotein complexes, known as TORC1 and TORC2. TORC1 inhibition has been observed to prolong lifespan, enhance immune responses, ameliorate heart failure, enhance memory and mobility, decrease adiposity, and delay onset of aging-related diseases in multiple animal studies. On the other hand, TORC2 inhibition has been observed to decrease lifespan and cause hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia in certain animals and humans. Therefore, we believe the optimal approach for the treatment of aging-related conditions through mTOR inhibition is a regimen that inhibits TORC1 without inhibiting TORC2. mTOR within the TORC1 complex introduces phosphates to, or phosphorylates, multiple proteins including S6K, 4EBP1 and Ulk1, as shown in the figure below. More complete inhibition of TORC1, as measured by decreased phosphorylation of multiple proteins downstream of TORC1, may also be more beneficial compared to partial inhibition of TORC1 for the treatment of aging-related diseases.

We believe TORC1 inhibition may have therapeutic benefit in multiple aging-related diseases. Preclinical studies suggest that key mechanisms involved in the anti-aging effects of TORC1 inhibition include improved stem cell function, increased autophagy, increased expression of mitochondrial proteins that are important for energy production, decreased adiposity and increased expression of proteins that are responsible for cellular maintenance and repair. Based on preclinical data, these biological effects have the potential to improve multiple aging-related pathologies:

103

Immunosenescence and Respiratory Tract Infections in the Elderly

Potential for TORC1 inhibition to address decreased immune function associated with aging

TORC1 inhibition has been observed to enhance immune function in at least three independent preclinical studies to date, conducted by laboratories at the University of Michigan, Emory University and St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, where administration of mTOR inhibitors improved immune response to influenza vaccination. Further, findings from these preclinical studies suggest that short-term treatment of aged animals with a TORC1 inhibitor can rejuvenate HSC function, increase the number of infection-fighting white blood cells, and increase longevity. We believe these findings suggest that TORC1 inhibition has the potential to improve immune function in elderly humans.

Respiratory tract infections in the elderly

The reduced ability of the aging immune system to effectively detect and fight infections results in increased susceptibility of the elderly to RTIs, which, in turn negatively impacts such patients’ overall health and quality of life. We believe that decreasing the incidence of RTIs is a large unmet medical need in the elderly, particularly in subjects at an increased risk of RTI-related morbidity and mortality. We believe there is a significant unmet medical need for an innovative therapy to reduce the incidence of RTIs in the elderly for the following reasons:

104

Estimated Size of Population Susceptible to RTI-related Morbidity and Mortality

Lower Respiratory Tract Infection Rates Increase with Age

105

106

Our TORC1 Program

Overview

In March 2017, we obtained a license from Novartis to the worldwide rights to RTB101 for all indications, and the rights to use everolimus in combination with RTB101 for all aging-related indications. RTB101 is an orally administered, small molecule, potent TORC1 inhibitor that binds to the active site of mTOR on the TORC1 complex, a mechanism known as catalytic inhibition. In contrast, everolimus, also an orally administered small molecule, inhibits mTOR activity by changing the shape of TORC1, a mechanism known as allosteric inhibition, that is distinct from and synergistic with catalytic inhibition.

The downstream signaling cascade of TORC1 that we believe occurs in scenarios of baseline, RTB101 alone and RTB101 in combination with everolimus are pictured in the following figure.

Our TORC1 program includes evaluation of RTB101 alone because we believe RTB101 monotherapy can effectively inhibit phosphorylation of multiple downstream signaling nodes of TORC1, specifically S6K and 4EBP1, that are key drivers of TORC1 downstream activity. Decreased phosphorylation of S6K leads to decreased activity, while decreased phosphorylation of 4EBP1 and Ulk1 leads to increased activity. We believe RTB101 alone consistently inhibits more downstream signaling nodes of TORC1 than a rapalog, such as everolimus, alone. Furthermore, we believe RTB101 at the low doses that we are evaluating in our clinical studies can achieve these effects without inhibiting TORC2. RTB101 at higher doses, while able to more completely inhibit TORC1, may also inhibit TORC2, which may lead to undesirable side effects.

Our TORC1 program also includes evaluation of RTB101 in combination with everolimus, as the combination of catalytic and allosteric inhibitors may yield complete inhibition of all nodes downstream of TORC1, including 4EBP1 and Ulk1, without affecting TORC2. It was observed in preclinical in vitro studies that RTB101 and everolimus at the comparable doses that we are evaluating in our clinical trials synergistically inhibit 4EBP1. The synergy of RTB101 and everolimus, as measured by Loewe additivity, was up to 43% in those studies. Loewe additivity in excess of 30% is considered to be high. We believe everolimus may induce a conformation change in TORC1 that allows lower concentrations of RTB101 to inhibit TORC1 without inhibiting TORC2. Preclinical and clinical data suggest that for some indications, RTB101 monotherapy may be adequate to yield clinically meaningful benefit to patients, while for other indications, the combination of RTB101 and everolimus may be more beneficial. Accordingly, our TORC1 program includes evaluation of both RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus.

107

Clinical Development of RTB101 Alone and in Combination with Everolimus

We consider data from a Phase 2a clinical trial to be the most directly relevant dataset for our near-term development of RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus, including the design of our ongoing Phase 2b trial evaluating the safety, tolerability and efficacy of our product candidates to reduce the incidence of RTIs in the elderly. If results from our ongoing Phase 2b clinical trial are positive, we intend to initiate a Phase 3 program for RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus in 2019. We believe that preclinical and clinical safety data of high-dose RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus that was generated by our licensor provide additional support for the clinical development of our program. The potential for TORC1 inhibition to ameliorate immunosenescence was also demonstrated in a previous Phase 2a clinical trial.

Phase 2a Clinical Development

The primary objectives of the Phase 2a clinical trial were to assess the safety, tolerability and efficacy of RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus compared to placebo in enhancing the immune response to vaccination in elderly subjects, as determined by the subjects’ immune response to the seasonal influenza vaccine. A pre-specified exploratory endpoint assessed the effect of a six-week course of RTB101 alone or in combination with everolimus on infection rates during the year following initiation of study drug treatment. The trial was a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial that enrolled a total of 264 male and female subjects at least 65 years of age without underlying unstable medical conditions, and was conducted across 12 trial centers in the southern hemisphere. Subjects were randomized to one of five treatment arms, in which they were administered daily oral doses of everolimus 0.1 mg, everolimus 0.5 mg, RTB101 10 mg, RTB101 10 mg+everolimus 0.1 mg, or placebo. The trial met its primary endpoint and the pre-specified exploratory infection rate endpoint.

Subjects were treated for six weeks with the study drug and, after a two week drug-free interval, were given the seasonal influenza vaccine. The subjects were followed for one year following initiation of study drug treatment. The overall infection rate in each treatment group was assessed by having subjects record any infections they experienced during the year following the initiation of study drug treatment in a diary. The sites reviewed the infection diary at each study visit. In addition, sites administered infection questionnaires during phone calls with subjects that occurred weekly during the six-week study drug dosing period and then monthly for the remainder of the trial. Investigators reviewed and approved the information contained in the telephone questionnaire reports within 24 hours. The infection data in the diaries and telephone reports were reconciled by sites prior to entering infections in the clinical trial database.

108

In the RTB101 monotherapy and RTB101+everolimus combination treatment arms in the intent-to-treat population, statistically significant and clinically meaningful reductions in the annual rate of infections of 33% (p=0.008) and 38% (p=0.001), respectively, compared to placebo, were observed. Reductions with p-values less than 0.05 are considered to be statistically significant. A lesser, non-statistically significant effect was observed with everolimus monotherapy.

109

Since the most common infections that occurred during the trial were RTIs, a post-hoc analysis was performed to determine whether a reduction in RTIs contributed to the significant reduction in infections at one year following initiation of study drug treatment in the RTB101 monotherapy and RTB101+everolimus combination treatment arms. As shown in the figure below, both RTB101 monotherapy and the RTB101+everolimus combination therapy were observed to reduce the incidence of RTIs at one year by 42% (p=0.006) and 36% (p=0.01), respectively, in the intent-to-treat population. Greater reductions in the incidence of RTIs were observed during the six-week dosing period in the RTB101 monotherapy and RTB101+everolimus combination arms. Given that the magnitude of the reduction in RTI incidence was greater at six weeks than at one year, these findings suggest that the reduction in RTI rates was greatest during the period when subjects were receiving the study drug. The typical duration of the peak cold and flu season is approximately 16 weeks. As shown in the figure below, analysis of the Phase 2a clinical data also revealed reductions of 45% (p=0.039) and 50% (p=0.013) in RTIs from treatment with RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus, respectively, during the 16 weeks following initiation of therapy despite only six weeks of treatment.

110

To assess possible molecular mechanisms underlying the decrease in infection rates in the RTB101 monotherapy and RTB101+everolimus combination treatment groups, mRNA sequencing analysis of whole blood from subjects at baseline and after six weeks of study drug treatment was conducted. Analysis of whole-blood gene expression data revealed a highly statistically significant up-regulation of pathways related to interferon signaling in the RTB101 monotherapy and RTB101+everolimus combination treatment arms but not in the placebo arm, as shown in the figures below. Genes that were up-regulated the most, including MX1, OAS3, ISG15 and IFIT1, encode a subset of Type 1 interferon-induced proteins that play a critical role in the acute, innate immune response to viruses, suggesting that RTB101 alone and in combination with everolimus may enhance innate immunity. Pathways, or groups of genes, related to cytokine signaling and interferon signaling were significantly upregulated, with p-values ranging between 10^-45 to 10^-10.

111

While the effects of RTB101 monotherapy and RTB101+everolimus combination therapy on reducing RTIs incidence in the elderly and up-regulating innate immunity genes were comparable, only the combination therapy met the primary endpoint of the Phase 2a clinical trial of enhancing influenza vaccination response, defined as a greater than 20% increase in antibody concentrations, or titers, to at least two of the three tested influenza vaccine strains as compared to placebo, measured at 12 weeks following initial dosing of the study drug. We believe these results suggest that the RTB101+everolimus combination therapy may also enhance the adaptive immune system, in addition to enhancing the innate immune system, given that the RTB101+everolimus combination resulted in broader TORC1 inhibition. The adaptive immune response to influenza vaccination across all treatment arms is shown in the figure below, where asterisks indicate a 100% probability that titers are greater than those observed in the placebo group.

Overall, all treatment regimens were well tolerated. None of the participants in the treatment arms experienced a serious adverse event, or SAE, that was related to the study drug. The following table summarizes the SAEs experienced by trial subjects during the year they were followed in the trial.